Large Interfacial Area Research Articles

Pickering emulsion stabilized with charge separation and transfer modulated photocatalyst for enzyme-photo-coupled catalysis

Biocatalytic reduction is extensively employed in chemical and pharmaceutical industries due to its notable advantages including high activity, selectivity and mild reaction conditions, however, the stoichiometric use of the expensive NADH (reduced form of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) hinders its widespread application. Despite the persisting challenges of low charge separation efficiency and limited solubility of organic substrates in aqueous phase, in situ photocatalytic NADH regeneration remains a promising solution. Herein, we report the construction of an enzyme-photo-coupled catalytic system in Pickering emulsion droplet, which was stabilized by a charge separation and transfer modulated photocatalyst. The photocatalyst integrated with visible light driven conjugated polymer, TiO2 and electron mediator greatly enhanced the cascade electron transfer from photocatalyst to NAD+. Consequently, NADH production rate over the integrated photocatalyst reaches as high as 2.4 mmol·g−1·h−1 under visible light irradiation, 12 folds higher than the corresponding physical mixture. Furthermore, the enzyme-photo-coupled catalytic system was constructed with alcohol dehydrogenase/NAD+ confined in the emulsion droplet and photocatalyst assembled at the oil-water interface. The photoactive emulsion continuously catalyzed the n-butyaldehyde reduction to accumulate 16.1 mmol·L−1 butanol, equivalent to 14 cycles for NADH regeneration under visible light irradiation. The primary result demonstrates the potential application prospect of Pickering emulsion in enzyme-photo-coupled catalysis due to the facilitated charge transfer from photocatalyst to NAD+ and fast mass diffusion attributed to the large interfacial area of water and oil.

Efficient Electron Transfer through Interfacial Water Molecules across Two-Dimensional MoO3 for Humidity Sensing.

Resistive humidity sensors are required in flexible and integrated devices. Two-dimensional MoO3 offers a large interface area, enabling the modulation of its electrical properties over a wide range. In this study, 2D MoO3 was synthesized via liquid-phase exfoliation for humidity-sensing tests. In terms of high sensitivity, negligible hysteresis, linearity, and stability, the humidity-sensing performance of MoO3 is superior to those of other materials. The sensitivity reaches 9794 Ω/RH at 25 °C. The sensing mechanism of MoO3 was investigated by using impedance spectra and voltage-current scans under different humidity levels. The results indicate that the resistance change of MoO3 due to humidity originates from the interfacial conductance. Interfacial H2O adsorption induces efficient conducting paths via hydrogen bonding, decreases the potential barrier for electron transfer, and supplies additional electron states to the valence bands. In this study, electronic humidity sensing was investigated in depth, and a new perspective was proposed for electronic humidity sensing.

Effect of dynamic contact angle behavior on droplet topological structure and film thickness evolutions in droplet mode

The droplet mode falling film evaporation was an area of intense research due to its thin liquid film and large interfacial area. A two-dimensional mathematical model based on the dynamic contact angle (DCA) model was developed to quantitatively analyze the effect of DCA behavior on droplet topological structure and film thickness evolutions of droplet mode in falling-film evaporation. Due to the movement of the three-phase contact line (vc) considered in the DCA model, the fact that the calculated DCA was significantly greater than the static contact angle (SCA) resulted in the phenomena of the liquid ring and droplet pulsation captured by the DCA model. The observed fluctuations of the DCA and vc might be attributed to the break-up of the liquid neck. For the impact stage, the peaks of the transient film thickness calculated by the DCA model were thicker than those by the SCA model and their differences increased with the increasing circumferential angle. For the metastable stage, the average film thickness predicted by the DCA model was thicker than that by the SCA model due to the captured droplet pulsation and calculated shorter metastable state by the DCA model.

Ice nucleation in the presence of nucleation promoters dispersed in tetrabutylammonium bromide (TBAB) solutions

Ice nucleation is the initial step of ice formation that has significant impact on global climate, several engineering and structural surfaces and other systems like clathrate hydrates. The nucleation promoters for ice have been studied for decades but some problems or mechanisms remain unclear. In our earlier study [1], Snomax was found to be the most effective promoter among the common ice nucleation promoters we had tested and it was postulated that the efficacy of Snomax might be aided by its larger interfacial area available for heterogeneous nucleation because it could be easily dispersed in water. Here we attempted to disperse the three ice nucleation promoters which we had previously found to be effective – AgI, kaolinite and cholesterol – into liquid water to increase the interfacial area with water and the heterogeneous nucleation rate of ice. We found dispersion of these promoters into water to be difficult and required addition of Tetrabutylammonium bromide (TBAB) to the aqueous phase before they could be dispersed. We then investigated the nucleation rates of ice in the dispersed nucleation promoter suspensions. We found (1) addition of TBAB alone unexpectedly promoted the nucleation of ice, (2) dispersing AgI into 1 mM TBAB solutions further promoted ice nucleation, (3) dispersing kaolinite or cholesterol in TBAB solutions did not promote ice nucleation more so than the TBAB solutions without kaolinite or cholesterol.

Three-Dimensional Reconstruction of Interface Roughness and Alloy Disorder in Ge/GeSi Asymmetric Coupled Quantum Wells Using Electron Tomography.

Interfaces play an essential role in the performance of ever-shrinking semiconductor devices, making comprehensive determination of their three-dimensional (3D) structural properties increasingly important. This becomes even more relevant in compositional interfaces, as is the case for Ge/GeSi heterostructures, where chemical intermixing is pronounced in addition to their morphology. We use the electron tomography method to reconstruct buried interfaces and layers of asymmetric coupled Ge/Ge0.8Si0.2 multiquantum wells, which are considered a potential building block in THz quantum cascade lasers. The three-dimensional reconstruction is based on a series of high-angle annular dark-field scanning transmission electron microscopy images. It allows chemically sensitive investigation of a relatively large interfacial area of about (80 × 80) nm2 with subnanometer resolution as well as the analysis of several interfaces within the multiquantum well stack. Representing the interfaces as iso-concentration surfaces in the tomogram and converting them to topographic height maps allows the determination of their morphological roughness as well as layer thicknesses, reflecting low variations in either case. Simulation of the reconstructed tomogram intensities using a sigmoidal function provides in-plane-resolved maps of the chemical interface widths showing a relatively large spatial variation. The more detailed analysis of the intermixed region using thin slices from the reconstruction and additional iso-concentration surfaces provides an accurate picture of the chemical disorder of the alloy at the interface. Our comprehensive three-dimensional image of Ge/Ge0.8Si0.2 interfaces reveals that in the case of morphologically very smooth interfaces─depending on the scale considered─the interface alloy disorder itself determines the overall characteristics, a result that is fundamental for highly miscible material systems.

Fabrication and characterization of highly hydrophobic PVDF membrane by phase inversion method with high anti-wettability characteristics

Membrane gas-liquid separation technology has garnered significant attention in applications such as membrane desalination, distillation, and gas absorption due to its operational flexibility, compact design, and large specific interfacial area. However, the currently used membranes are prone to pore wetting under high operational pressures, transitioning from a non-wetted state to partially or fully wetted conditions. This undesired wetting increases mass transfer resistance for water vapor molecules, ultimately leading to reduced removal efficiency. To address this issue and enhance wetting resistance, membrane hydrophobicity needs to be improved. In this study, a highly hydrophobic polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) membrane was developed using the phase inversion method for membrane distillation applications. We mixed a 16wt% polymer concentration with N-Methylpyrrolidone (NMP) as a solvent at 50°C for 24 hours. Subsequently, the polymer solution was cast and exposed to different non-solvents, namely water and methanol, to investigate their impact. Surface morphology and hydrophobic properties of the synthesized membranes were analyzed using Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and a Goniometer. Our findings indicate that the PVDF membrane fabricated with methanol as the non-solvent exhibited a significantly higher water contact angle of 126°, compared to 70° when deionized water was used as the non-solvent. This change from water to methanol as the non-solvent resulted in a more symmetrical membrane structure, enhancing the water contact angle from 70° to 126°. It is interesting to note that increase in the water contact angle increases the hydrophobicity of the PVDF membrane.

Multi-layered heterogeneous interfaces created in Co0.85Se@Ni3S4/NF to enhance supercapacitor performances by multi-step alternating electrodeposition.

Heterogeneous interface construction is of far-reaching significance to optimize the electrochemical performance of electrodes. Herein, a multi-step alternating electrochemical deposition (MAED) method is proposed to alternately deposit Co0.85Se and Ni3S4 nanosheets on a nickel foam (NF), forming a special alternate layer-by-layer structure with multi-layered heterogeneous interfaces. The creation of the multi-layered heterogeneous interfaces provides a large interfacial area for redox reactions with optimum interstitials facilitating ion diffusion, thus greatly improving the electrochemical energy storage efficiency. With the increase in the layer number, the material exhibits increasingly better energy storage performance, and 8L-Co0.85Se@Ni3S4/NF exhibits the highest specific capacitances of 2508 F g-1 and 1558 F g-1 at a scan rate of 2 mV s-1 and a current density of 1 A g-1. The 8L-Co0.85Se@Ni3S4/NF//polypyrrole (PPy)/NF asymmetric supercapacitor provides a maximum operation potential window of 1.55 V and energy densities of 76.98 and 35.74 W h kg-1 when the power densities are 775.0 and 15 500 W kg-1, respectively, superior to most of the related materials reported. Through MAED, the deposited phase and the layer number can be accurately controlled, thus providing an efficient strategy for interface construction so as to increase the electrochemical activity of the energy storage materials.

Gradient Porous Graphene-Based Ion-Selective Electrode for Real-Time Monitoring of Sweat Electrolyte

Human sweat, a biomarker-rich physiological fluid, is an ideal candidate for non-invasive and real-time health monitoring. State-of-the-art electrochemical sweat sensors, that detect concentrations of analytes, such as electrolytes, through ion-selective membranes (ISM) in ion-selective electrodes (ISEs), show great potential for monitoring bodily conditions with high selectivity and affordability. Ion detection can be accomplished by utilizing the electrochemical potential gradient across an ISM within the solid-contact ISE. The solid-contact interface, located between the sensing membrane and electron-conducting substrate, plays a crucial role in ion-to-electron transduction. This critical layer serves to minimize the formation of the water layer, enabling stable potential responses and maintaining long-term stability.This work focuses on the use of chemical vapor deposition-grown, hydrophobic, gradient porous graphene (3D-G) material as the solid-contact layer in the ISE, offering a wider detection range, enhanced sensitivity, and improved long-term stability. The highly porous structure promotes ion recognition, diffusion, and adsorption onto the enhanced electrode surface, resulting in long-term stability, rapid analyte diffusion, and enhanced ion-to-electron transduction for sweat electrolyte sensing. A three-dimensionally interconnected porous electrode design can significantly enlarge the sensing areas in comparison to a 2D planar electrode, thereby improving the overall sensing performance of the sweat sensor. Owing to their large interface area, coupled with large double-layer capacitance in all-solid-state ISEs, hydrophobic nanostructured materials have been demonstrated to facilitate the ion-to-electron transduction process. Employing the 3D-G ISEs for health assessment has been exemplified through an on-body sweat sensing experiment, wherein the obtained results exhibit notable similarity with those generated by Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS). Figure 1

Vertically Aligned Nanocomposite Thin Films Incorporating 3D-Architectures for Micro-Battery Applications

Vertically aligned nanocomposite (VAN) thin films have shown strong potential in oxide nanoionics but are yet to be explored in detail in solid-state battery systems [1,2]. VANs, typically grown by pulsed laser deposition (PLD), are chessboard-like structures comprised of pillars of one phase embedded in a matrix the second phase. They form by solid-state thermodynamic self-assembly, allowing the spontaneous formation of interdigitated battery components in a single deposition without additional processing steps such as etching. Their 3D architectures are attractive because they may allow enhancements in capacity, current and power densities [3]. Furthermore, VAN films grow with a preferential orientation, allowing for selective growth of the optimum crystallographic orientation for high performance by altering the substrate phase and/or orientation. Also, owing to their large interfacial surface areas, VAN could serve as models to study interfaces and solid-electrolyte interphase formation during cycling due to their high interfacial surface areas.In this poster, first we present highly crystalline and epitaxial vertically aligned nanocomposite PLD films comprised of a LixLa0.32±0.05(Nb0.7±0.1Ti0.32±0.05)O3±δ-Ti0.8±0.1Nb0.17±0.03O2±δ-anatase (LL(Nb,Ti)O-(Ti,Nb)O2) electrolyte/anode system, the first anode VAN battery system reported (Figure 1) [4]. This system exhibits an order of magnitude increased Li+ ionic conductivity over that in bulk Li3xLa1/3-xNbO3 (LLNO) and is comparable with the best available Li3xLa2/3-xTiO3 (LLTO) pulsed laser deposition films. Then, we will highlight the considerations and challenges that VANs pose, and how to overcome them [5]. Finally, we will also present our recently submitted work on VAN based cathodes [6]. Our carefully selected materials combination exhibits remarkable high-rate performance, achieving discharge capacities > 70 mAh g-1 up to ~200 C with clear redox behavior of the cathode-of-choice. The enhanced electrochemical performance is enabled by the 3D VAN architecture. Interestingly, we elucidate the relationship between pillar morphology and electrochemical performance, namely there is an optimum size and orientation of cathodic nanopillars such that high discharge capacity under high-rate regimes is possible. These works open up the possibility of incorporating VAN films into an all solid-state battery, either as electrodes or electrolytes, by the pairing of suitable materials.

Microemulsions: a promising drug delivery system

Microemulsions, comprising oil, water and a surfactant, in association with some co-surfactant, are thermodynamically stable systems. They have found applications in a large number of chemical and pharmacological processes due to their unique properties such as large interfacial area, low interfacial tension, and most importantly, the ability to solubilize and deliver hydrophobic drugs. Microemulsions are ore, topical and parenteral administration. Microemulsions are thermodynamically stable. Microemulsions are clear, thermodynamically stable isotropic liquid mixtures of oil, water and surfactant, frequently in combination with a cosurfactant. This review highlights the properties and several recent developments in the use of microemulsions for medical treatment purposes including targeted drug delivery.

Experimental and numerical characterisation of two-phase flow in NETmix reactors

NETmix has been shown to be an efficient mixing technology for miscible fluids, promoting large heat and mass transfer rates. This work intends to assess NETmix for multiphase mixing, which is particularly relevant to evaluate the NETmix’s ability to couple mixing and heat transfer. The first step is to build fundamental knowledge regarding two-phase flow in these devices. A 2D CFD two-phase model was implemented based on the Euler‑Euler approach with the Volume of Fluid (VOF) method using the NETmix Unit Block (NUB). The two phases are liquids with equal density and viscosity, enabling the study of the impact of the interfacial tension and contact angle on the flow dynamics and drop formation. Mass transfer was assessed from the flow shear at the interface of the two phases. The CFD model was experimentally validated using a water-cyclohexane system. The NETmix technology promotes high flow dynamics and large interfacial area generation between the two phases. The successive split and recombining of flow contribute to an intense fluid renewal around the two phases’ interface, enhancing the mass transfer rate. NETmix shows potential for multiphase applications, particularly between two immiscible liquid phases, with a four-fold increase of the interfacial area of immiscible fluids.

Reinforced PDMS Elastomer Nanocomposites: Effectiveness of In Situ Nano-Silica Content on Flashover Voltage and Treeing Phenomena

Large interfacial surface area between the inorganic particles and the polymer matrix has made nanocomposites an interesting composition for a wide range of applications including high-voltage insulating materials. However, nanofiller dispersion is challenging and there is always a specific percolation threshold that narrows the particle content in a polymer dispersion. This research attempt to benefit the in-situ silica precipitation technique to avoid all problems associated with nanoparticle dispersion and furthermore introduce a technique to increase the nano-silica content. In this regard, elastomeric silicone nanocomposites loaded with various amount of nano-silica, low to high, is fabricated. It is revealed that the nanocomposite loaded with a high quantity of nano-silica particles exhibited high thermal stability and heat resistivity. Utilized as a coating, this nanocomposite could successfully increase the flashover voltage and present less damage after electrical discharges. Moreover, the electrical treeing investigation illustrates a different distribution of tree structure depending on nano-silica content which could be beneficial in diverse electrical insulating applications.

Electrochemical oxidation of phenol in a PtRu/NbC membrane-based catalytic nanoreactor

Electrochemical oxidation has attracted growing attention to treat organic in wastewater. However, achieving a high reactor efficiency and harmless treatment of the toxic organics is still a significant challenge. In this work, the bimetal Pt and Ru were firstly co-electrodeposited on the surface of nanoporous niobium carbide (NbC) membranes (∼8.3 nm pore size) applying for anode in flow-through reactor for phenol electrochemical oxidation. In a continuous flow-through reactor, the single-pass removals of phenol and chemical oxygen demand (COD) were 99.7 % and 74.2 %, respectively, with a short hydraulic retention time of 342 s, demonstrating rapid phenol degradation that is an order of magnitude shorter than those reported in other studies. This excellent reactor efficiency was ascribed to a large interfacial reaction area providing by the pollutant phase-catalytic membrane-green product phase. We compared the mass transfer of flow-through and flow-by reactor testifying the high efficiency of flow-through reactor. The excellent stability of PtRu/NbC anode enable this reactor to operate 50 h stably. Moreover, the presence of low or non-toxic (catechol and acetic acid) as the residues of phenol degradation resulting from the contribution of synergistic reaction between direct and indirect oxidation process.

Kinetics of Nanobubbles in Tiny-Angle Twisted Bilayer Graphene.

Realization of high-quality van der Waals (vdWs) heterostructures by stacking two-dimensional (2D) layers requires atomically clean interfaces. Because of strong adhesion between the constituent layers, the vdWs forces could drive trapped contaminants together into submicron-size "bubbles", which leaves large interfacial areas atomically clean. Here, we study the kinetics of nanobubbles in tiny-angle twisted bilayer graphene (TBG) and our results reveal a substantial influence of the moiré superlattice on the motion of nanoscale interfacial substances. Our experiments indicate that the bubbles will mainly move along the triangular network of domain boundaries in the tiny-angle TBG when the sizes of the bubbles are comparable to that of an AA-stacking region. When the size of the bubble is smaller than that of an AA-stacking region, the bubble becomes motionless and is fixed in the AA-stacking region, because of its large out-of-plane corrugation.

Structural basis of HIV-1 Vif-mediated E3 ligase targeting of host APOBEC3H

Human APOBEC3 (A3) cytidine deaminases are antiviral factors that are particularly potent against retroviruses. As a countermeasure, HIV-1 uses a viral infectivity factor (Vif) to target specific human A3s for proteasomal degradation. Vif recruits cellular transcription cofactor CBF-β and Cullin-5 (CUL5) RING E3 ubiquitin ligase to bind different A3s distinctively, but how this is accomplished remains unclear in the absence of the atomic structure of the complex. Here, we present the cryo-EM structures of HIV-1 Vif in complex with human A3H, CBF-β and components of CUL5 ubiquitin ligase (CUL5, ELOB, and ELOC). Vif nucleates the entire complex by directly binding four human proteins, A3H, CBF-β, CUL5, and ELOC. The structures reveal a large interface area between A3H and Vif, primarily mediated by an α-helical side of A3H and a five-stranded β-sheet of Vif. This A3H-Vif interface unveils the basis for sensitivity-modulating polymorphism of both proteins, including a previously reported gain-of-function mutation in Vif isolated from HIV/AIDS patients. Our structural and functional results provide insights into the remarkable interplay between HIV and humans and would inform development efforts for anti-HIV therapeutics.

Computational investigation on the flow and mass transfer properties inside ejector of loop reactor based on CFD-PBM simulation

Conventional stirred kettle reactors suffer from inadequate gas-liquid mixing in many production processes, and their reaction rates are greatly limited. The loop reactor can achieve high mass transfer rates with low energy consumption. It is well suited for multiphase reactions with limited mass transfer and has the advantage of being excellent sealing and low cost. In this paper, ejector as the core of the loop reactor was investigated. Combining the Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) and Population Balance Model (PBM), the industrial-scale ejector model was constructed. The detailed motion behavior of bubbles and bubble size distribution were predicted. Due to the entrainment of the liquid phase, the gas enters the suction chamber and throat of the ejector, where the gas is mainly sheared and broken, providing a large specific surface area of the gas-liquid interface. Moreover, the flow and transfer properties were closely related to parameters such as nozzle-throat diameter ratio and liquid inlet velocity. Based on the results of the simulation, the gas-liquid mass ratio and the volumetric mass transfer coefficient were correlated with the structure and process parameters, and the correlation model was obtained, which provides guidance for the design of the loop reactor.

Bicontinuous Cubic Liquid Crystals as Potential Matrices for Non-Invasive Topical Sampling of Low-Molecular-Weight Biomarkers.

Many skin disorders, including cancer, have inflammatory components. The non-invasive detection of related biomarkers could therefore be highly valuable for both diagnosis and follow up on the effect of treatment. This study targets the extraction of tryptophan (Trp) and its metabolite kynurenine (Kyn), two compounds associated with several inflammatory skin disorders. We furthermore hypothesize that lipid-based bicontinuous cubic liquid crystals could be efficient extraction matrices. They comprise a large interfacial area separating interconnected polar and apolar domains, allowing them to accommodate solutes with various properties. We concluded, using the extensively studied GMO-water system as test-platform, that the hydrophilic Kyn and Trp favored the cubic phase over water and revealed a preference for locating at the lipid-water interface. The interfacial area per unit volume of the matrix, as well as the incorporation of ionic molecules at the lipid-water interface, can be used to optimize the extraction of solutes with specific physicochemical characteristics. We also observed that the cubic phases formed at rather extreme water activities (>0.9) and that wearing them resulted in efficient hydration and increased permeability of the skin. Evidently, bicontinuous cubic liquid crystals constitute a promising and versatile platform for non-invasive extraction of biomarkers through skin, as well as for transdermal drug delivery.

Plastic deformation of Ag/MgO interface system during tensile fracture: A molecular dynamics study

Fracture experiments on layered metal-ceramic composites show that the plastic dissipation in the metal near the crack tip accounts for most of the macroscopic fracture toughness. In this work we studied the microscopic plastic deformation mechanisms of Ag/MgO interface systems using molecular dynamics (MD) method. As tensile strain increases, lattice dislocations nucleate at interface misfit dislocations and propagate in metal layer. The formation of immobile Hirth dislocations in Ag causes hardening. As the metal layer increases, the yield strength decreases and the hardening range is shortened. Large interface area increases the degree of inhomogeneity of dislocation motion and interface fracture behavior, leading to decreased interface yield strength.

Porous Rod-like NiTiO3-BiOBr Heterojunctions with Highly Improved Visible-Light Photocatalytic Performance.

NiTiO3-BiOBr heterostructured photocatalysts were constructed via precipitation, calcination and hydrothermal treatments. Various characterizations demonstrated that BiOBr nanosheets were decorated on NiTiO3 nanoparticals, forming porous rod-like heterojunctions. Compared with independent NiTiO3 and BiOBr, the composites with optimal BiOBr content presented highly improved visible-light photocatalytic efficiency. The degradation rates of Rhodamine B (RhB) and tetracycline (TC) reached 96.6% in 1.5 h (100% in 2 h) and 73.5% in 3 h, which are 6.61 and 1.53 times those of NiTiO3, respectively. The result is an improved photocatalytic behavior from the formation of heterojunctions with a large interface area, which significantly promoted the separation of photogenerated carriers and strengthened the visible-light absorption. Based on the free radical capture experiments and band position analysis, the photodegradation mechanism of type-II heterojunction was deduced. This study provides a new way to fabricate highly efficient NiTiO3-based photocatalysts for degrading certain organics.

Discriminating physiological from non-physiological interfaces in structures of protein complexes: A community-wide study.

Reliably scoring and ranking candidate models of protein complexes and assigning their oligomeric state from the structure of the crystal lattice represent outstanding challenges. A community-wide effort was launched to tackle these challenges. The latest resources on protein complexes and interfaces were exploited to derive a benchmark dataset consisting of 1677 homodimer protein crystal structures, including a balanced mix of physiological and non-physiological complexes. The non-physiological complexes in the benchmark were selected to bury a similar or larger interface area than their physiological counterparts, making it more difficult for scoring functions to differentiate between them. Next, 252 functions for scoring protein-protein interfaces previously developed by 13 groups were collected and evaluated for their ability to discriminate between physiological and non-physiological complexes. A simple consensus score generated using the best performing score of each of the 13 groups, and a cross-validated Random Forest (RF) classifier were created. Both approaches showed excellent performance, with an area under the Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) curve of 0.93 and 0.94, respectively, outperforming individual scores developed by different groups. Additionally, AlphaFold2 engines recalled the physiological dimers with significantly higher accuracy than the non-physiological set, lending support to the reliability of our benchmark dataset annotations. Optimizing the combined power of interface scoring functions and evaluating it on challenging benchmark datasets appears to be a promising strategy.