Bilingual Language Research Articles

The potential roles of multilingualism and language structural distance in neurocognitive adaptation to language experience

A growing body of research shows that individual differences in bilingual language experience variably contribute to neurocognitive adaptations. The trends in this work are beginning to show a specificity of adaptations to the nature and degree of bilingual experiences – for example, duration of use, language switching, context and intensity of engagement. However, several other factors likely further influence these bilingualism-induced neural and cognitive adaptations. Two such factors may play a modulatory role but are currently under-researched in this field. The first is how such adaptations are affected by the addition of a third or more language and the second is the role of language structural distance in shaping neurocognitive adaptation trajectories. Regarding the role of multilingualism, previous research suggests differences in neurocognitive adaptation to multiple languages over two, although results are mixed. It is possible that, like bilingualism, individual differences in engagement with a third (or more) language might also variably condition neurocognitive adaptation, but this remains an unanswered empirical question. Regarding the role of language structural distance, there are plausible reasons to predict that the relative distance in language pairings would condition the nature or trajectory of bilingualism-induced adaptations, but this is also an understudied topic. I review the existing literature covering these factors, discuss the potential mechanisms of adaptation to each and propose some potential ways of incorporating these factors into future research.

Modeling Dimensionality of Bilingual Kindergarteners' Language Knowledge in Spanish and English.

This study used structural equation modeling to investigate the dimensionality of language in Spanish-English bilingual kindergartners. Five theoretical models were compared, including (a) a unidimensional model; (b) a two-dimensional model by language (Spanish, English); (c) a three-dimensional model by domain of language (phonology, semantics, morphosyntax); (d) a second-order model organized first by language (Spanish, English), with each language dimension comprising three domain-specific dimensions (phonology, semantics, morphosyntax); and (e) a six-dimensional model with freely covarying language-specific domains. Participants included 238 Spanish-English bilingual kindergartens, as identified by parent report of current language exposure and direct language measures. All participants completed a battery of phonology, semantics, and morphosyntactic test items in English and in Spanish. The six-dimensional covarying model constrained by domain and language provided the best fit for the data, with six separate factors for phonology, morphosyntax, and semantics in English and Spanish. The excellent model fit is supported by findings of a χ2 to df (degrees of freedom) ratio < 2 with no significance, comparative fit index > .95, standardized root-mean-square residual < .08, and root-mean-square error of approximation values ≤ .05. Results support emergent theories of bilingual language development. Application of the results to the evaluation and intervention of oral language abilities in bilingual children entering the formal education setting are considered. https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.25843846.

A Preliminary Study on Characterizing Syntactic Processing and Pause Patterns in Bilingual English-Bahasa Indonesia Specific Language Impairment

A 12-year-old boy received a diagnosis of an unspecified "language disorder," suggesting the possibility of Specific Language Impairment (SLI) along with atypical pausing behavior. Interested to find out the possibility of incorporating pausing behavior into SLI diagnosis, this research sought to explore the distinctions in pause patterns between the spoken Bahasa Indonesia (BI) and English of Indonesian children, utilizing data from the child with suspected SLI (sSLI) and a control group for comparative analysis. Employing a quantitative approach and analyses related to phonology, syntax, and bilingual language production, the study revealed that the child with sSLI tended to display longer and more frequent pauses than the control group, particularly during communication in BI. Despite multiple influencing factors, pause patterns had the potential to serve as an indicative tool and a means to integrate bilingualism into the diagnosis of SLI.

“Mamá en inglés se dice ‘pre-med’”: bilingual Mexican-origin first-generation college undergraduates aspiring for medical careers

ABSTRACT Drawing on thirty pláticas with fifteen Mexican-origin premedical students enrolled at a large research university along the U.S./Mexico border region, we examine the strategies these young women use to persist in a heavily white and Asian dominant field where they are severely underrepresented. Our analysis underscores three main themes: 1) Language brokering; 2) Lack of Latina faculty representation limits social capital and; 3) Reliance on peers and Latinx centered organizations. We find that premedical Latinas, most of whom are of Mexican heritage in California, harness the bilingual language capital they accumulated in their childhoods as a valuable asset to gain access to opportunities in medicine, but have difficulty developing the necessary social capital networks in institutions of higher education with faculty. As a result, they turn to peer networks and Latinx ethnic organizations that serve as a bulwark from institutionalized discrimination and a means of developing the necessary social capital to persist.

What makes a cognate? Implications for research on bilingualism

What makes a cognate? Implications for research on bilingualism

Is adaptation involved in bilingual language production? A fresh look at the assumptions motivating potential bilingual-monolingual differences in adaptive control.

One of the hottest debates in psychology-whether bilingual-monolingual differences exist in cognitive control-is at a stalemate. Here we propose that the stalemate could be broken by shifting the research focus from whether those differences emerge to why they should. We offer an example of this approach by testing the assumption of current theories of language-control associations that adaptive control is involved in bilingualism, specifically language production. Unbalanced Italian-English bilinguals living in the Milan area completed a Stroop task in their L1 and a picture-naming task in their L2. Both tasks involved a manipulation of the proportion of the type of stimuli that are assumed to require control, i.e., incongruent stimuli in the Stroop task (e.g., the word RED written in blue) and pictures with noncognate names in the picture-naming task (e.g., the picture of a horse, whose Italian name, "cavallo," has a very different pronunciation). Both confirmatory and exploratory analyses showed a clear dissociation between the two tasks, with the Stroop task producing an interactive pattern indicative of adaptive-control involvement and the picture-naming task failing to produce a similar one. These results suggest that adaptive control may not be involved in bilingual language production and, therefore, may not produce bilingual-monolingual differences in cognitive control. It is hoped that this research will inspire a change in the study of language-control associations, pushing future research efforts towards grounding the assumptions for those associations in empirical evidence.

“¿Cómo qué, cómo qué? cómo qué?” Single-language echolalia in a bilingual female with progressive supranuclear palsy: a case report

ABSTRACT The case study explores bilingualism and neurodegenerative disorders, specifically progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP) with speech and language disorder (PSP-SL). It features a 78-year-old Mexican American woman who exhibits echolalia only in response to Spanish. This selective impairment suggests unevenly affected language control mechanisms despite her proficiency in both languages. Cognitive function is evaluated with neuropsychological tests; she's diagnosed with PSP-SL, depression, and anxiety. Echolalia in response to one language implies complex phonological retrieval mechanisms. Such observations prompt further inquiry into bilingual language control and processing mechanisms. The case supports evidence that bilingualism may attenuate neurodegeneration effects, suggesting better inhibitory control over disinhibited speech through enhanced executive functioning benefits.

Bilingual Language Control in the Brain: Evidence from Structural and Effective Functional Brain Connectivity.

Experience in bilingual language control is often accompanied by changes in the structure and function of the brain. Brain structural changes are also often closely related to changes in functions. Previous studies, however, have not directly explored the relationship between structural connectivity and effective functional connectivity of the brain during bilingual language control, and whether the two types of connectivity are associated with behavioral performance of language control. Using behavioral performance, functional, and diffusion imaging techniques, we found that: (1) during language control, the left dorsal lateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC), left caudate nucleus (CN), inferior parietal lobe, precuneus, and dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC)/pre-SMA were significantly activated. (2) In the language control model with left dlPFC, dACC/pre-SMA, and left CN as ROIs (selected based on activation results and language control models from previous studies), stimuli first enter dACC/pre-SMA and then to left CN. At the left CN, a bidirectional effective connectivity is formed with left dlPFC. (3) There is a nonlinear relationship between effective connectivity during language control and the structural connectivity of the second language learners' brains. Specifically, the fiber density between dACC/pre-SMA and left dlPFC has a positive influence on the bidirectional effective connectivity between left dlPFC and left CN. Findings of the present study contribute evidence toward functional effective connectivity during bilingual language control; toward structural connectivity in the brains of second language learners; as well as toward nonlinear relationships between functional effective connectivity, structural connectivity, and behavioral performance in relation to bilingual language control.

Exploring Online Chinese-English Bilingual Content and Language Integrated Learning Classrooms Through Moment Analysis

Bilingual education studies consider the fluid and dynamic linguistic repetoire of teachers and students as helpful resources accomplishing communicative goals in real-life context. This study examines the translanguaging practices of Chinese-English bilingual Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) classrooms in an online environment. Data was collected through partiticpant classroom observation and interviews. Moment analysis is employed to analyze the creativity and costs of translanguaging moments of the stakeholders. The classroom observation demonstrated translanguaging, as a co-constructed communicative tool, was initiated both by the teacher and students as translanguaging agents. Specifically, peer interaction and question answering were two main contexts in which students initiated translanguaging. And the teacher initiated translanguging in three contexts, namely, acamedic content knowledge teaching, classroom feedback and classroom management. Results from interviews with the teacher and students revealed that English proficiency might be the primary factor spurring translanguaging practices. Weaker English proficiency would lead to more active translanguaging praxis. Besides, translanguaging forms might be mediated by socio- and cultural-linguistic factors. English is used to express compliment and approval while Chinese will be employed to offer constructive criticism. Lastly, the costs of translanguaging moments were furthure analyzed. It is concluded that students translanguaging in the context of peer discussion lowered their cost of communication. Through code-mixing students confidence in solving academic problems is boosted and their engagement in group project is promoted as well. Teachers translanguaging lowered teachers teaching cost and students learning cost whereby the teacher-student confidence was co-constructed in this specific context. Whilst translanguaging pedagogy is endorsed in terms of content knowledge teaching and learning, it remains unclear whether the English proficiency is facilitated. Current research indicates it is important to be critical of translanguaging costs in integrating content and language learning.

Executive function's structure in monolingual and bilingual adults using confirmatory factor analysis

Abstract In processing their two languages, bilinguals have to selectively attend to the target language and reduce interference from the non-target language. This experience may have specific cognitive consequences on Executive Functions (EF) through bilingual language processing. Some studies found cognitive consequences in executive functioning skills. However, other studies did not replicate these findings or found a bilingual disadvantage. The aim of this study was to test for the cognitive consequences of bilingualism in EF among a large number of young adults using a latent variable approach, to rule out non-EF task differences as an explanation for inconsistency across studies. Also, we were interested in testing the EF structure using the Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) approach. The results did not support a cognitive consequence of bilingualism and also the EF structure was the same for both groups. We discuss other possible variables that might contribute to the mixed results across studies.

The impact of emotional states on bilingual language control in cued and voluntary switching contexts

This study investigated bilingual language control in emotional contexts. We assessed the language switching and mixing performance of two groups of Chinese-English bilinguals in picture naming under neutral, negative, and positive emotional states. One group switched languages voluntarily while another matched group switched languages according to external cues. We found that negative state impaired proactive control, whereas positive state seemed to improve proactive control. Importantly, the detrimental effects of negative state could be proportional to the cognitive demands imposed by the naming context. However, negative states disrupted proactive control in voluntary but not cued naming, where the proactive control demands were comparable. This finding suggests that the control system selectively compensates for the emotional disruption of control in a cued-naming context requiring strict control but not in a voluntary-naming context preferring less strict control. Accordingly, we tentatively proposed a theoretical account of the adaptive control mechanism in emotional contexts. These findings would extend the Adaptive Control Hypothesis to more naturalistic settings.

Modulating bilingual language production and cognitive control: how bilingual language experience matters

Abstract The Adaptive Control Hypothesis and the Control Process Model propose that bilingual language use in different interactional contexts requires control processes that can adapt in different ways to linguistic demands. This study explored the effects of language experience on cognitive flexibility and inhibition among 41 Chinese–English bilingual adults. In particular, it aimed to investigate the relationship between spontaneous language production (i.e., bilingual conversation and narration tasks) and cognitive control. Participants’ inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility efficiency was measured through verbal and spatial Stroop tasks, and a colour-shape switching task. Overall, it showed that frequent practices of intersentential switching in speech production resulted in significant facilitatory effects in both verbal and nonverbal inhibitory control. This study provides new evidence for the importance of bilingual language experience in adaptive cognitive control in naturalistic speech production and furthers our theoretical knowledge of the relationship between the language system and crucial domain-general cognitive processes.

“(Not) the same as it was”: Parents’ and teachers’ perception of the impact of COVID-19 on a bilingual elementary program

This article examines teachers’ and parents’ perceptions of the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and remote learning on the implementation of a Portuguese-English Dual Language Bilingual Education (DLBE) program in an elementary school in the U.S. Drawing on the literature on language orientations and in/equity in DLBE, this study hones in on the results of two surveys, involving 66 parents and 18 teachers, conducted as part of a three-year mixed-methods project. Our analysis points to the contrasting perceptions of parents regarding the impact of COVID-19 on their children’s education. English-speaking parents believed that the benefits of DLBE such as foreign language learning diminished, leading some to withdraw their children from the program. In contrast, Portuguese-speaking parents expressed commitment to the program and vouched for its positive impact on their children’s learning of Portuguese and English during the pandemic. Teachers reported the negative impacts of remote learning on all students’ language learning, but Portuguese-speaking students were perceived as struggling more due to a lack of parental support. This study contributes to research on in/equity in DLBE by showcasing how varying perceptions of parents and teachers during a crisis can accentuate inequitable dynamics for racialized bilingual students and families.

Bilingual oral language development among dual language immersion students: Use of a Bayesian approach with language learning progressions

AbstractThe dual language development of dual language immersion (DLI) students, although often examined at the domain level (e.g., listening or reading), remains understudied for more specific skills (e.g., word, sentence, or discourse). This study examines the eleven-month progression of oral language skills in a picture description task in two languages (French and English) for early-elementary (Transitional Kindergarten through first grade) DLI students (N = 42). Using Bayesian methods, which estimate parameters using both the data and prior information, we describe French and English growth patterns as measured by learning progressions whose focus is on language features at the word, sentence, and discourse levels. For French oral language, we found evidence of meaningful positive linear growth for all language features, whereas for English oral language, meaningful linear positive growth was only detected for sophistication of topic vocabulary. Overall, coming from a French-speaking household was associated with steeper French oral language trajectories, but coming from an English-only household did not specifically impact English oral language trajectories. In both languages, grade level influenced the trajectories of some—but not all—features. We conclude with theoretical and practical implications, advocating for a language progression approach in instruction and research on bilingualism.

Embodiment for Spatial Metaphors of Abstract Concepts Differs Across Languages in Chinese–English Bilinguals

AbstractEmbodied cognition posits that processing concepts requires sensorimotor activation. Previous research has shown that perceived power is spatially embodied along the vertical axis. However, it is unclear whether such mapping applies equally in the two languages of bilinguals. Using event‐related potentials, we compared spatial embodiment correlates in participants reporting the source of auditory words as being presented from above or below their sitting position. English bilinguals responded faster for congruent presentations of high‐power words (presented above) but not for congruent presentations of low‐power words (presented below) in both languages. Low‐power words together also failed to modulate N400 amplitude or interact with language. However, follow‐up analyses on high‐power words showed congruency effects on N400 amplitude in Chinese but not in English. Finally, English controls showed no effect. This suggests that spatial embodiment differs across languages in bilinguals, but the roles of culture and proficiency require further research.

Reduced false memory in the second language of Turkish-English bilinguals

In the Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm, studying a list of semantically related words leads to false memory for the critical non-studied word that is related to all the words in the study list. Previous studies questioning whether bilinguals are more prone to false memory in their first language (L1) or second language (L2) in the DRM paradigm revealed mixed results. The present study investigated the same question with Turkish-English bilinguals. The revised hierarchical model proposes that the link between the lexicon and the semantic system is weaker in L2 than in L1, suggesting that false memory in the DRM paradigm that relies on semantic relatedness would be higher in L1 than in L2. Furthermore, previous studies showed that L2 is more resistant to errors in decision-making when the two languages are dissimilar, but not when they are similar, and Turkish and English are historically distant and typologically dissimilar languages. We tested Turkish-English bilingual participants whose L1 is Turkish with Turkish and English DRM word lists that had similar prior norms for generating false recognition. In the recognition test, some of the studied items and the critical non-studied items were presented and participants identified the studied items. False recognition for the critical non-studied items was lower and correct recognition for studied items was higher in L2 than in L1. The results suggest that L2 is more resistant to false memory due to its weaker lexicon and semantic system associations, at least when the two languages spoken by the bilingual are dissimilar.

Universal and Language-Specific Connected Speech Characteristics of Bilingual Speakers With Alzheimer's Disease: Insights From Case Studies of Structurally Distinct Languages.

Connected speech analysis has been effectively utilized for the diagnosis and disease monitoring of individuals with Alzheimer's disease (AD). Existing research has been conducted mostly in monolingual English speakers with a noticeable lack of evidence from bilinguals and non-English speakers, particularly in non-European languages. Using a case study approach, we characterized connected speech profiles of two Bengali-English bilingual speakers with AD to determine the universal features of language impairments in both languages, identify language-specific differences between the languages, and explore language impairment characteristics of the participants with AD in relation to their bilingual language experience. Participants included two Bengali-English bilingual speakers with AD and a group of age-, gender-, education-, and language-matched neurologically healthy controls. Connected speech samples were collected in first language (L1; Bengali) and second language (L2; English) using a novel storytelling task (i.e., Frog, Where Are You?). These samples were analyzed using an augmented quantitative production analysis and correct information unit analyses for productivity, fluency, syntactic and morphosyntactic features, and lexical and semantic characteristics. Irrespective of the language, AD impacted speech productivity (speech rate and fluency) and semantic characteristics in both languages. Unique language-specific differences were noted on syntactic measures (reduced sentence length in Bengali), lexical distribution (fewer pronouns and absence of reduplication in Bengali), and inflectional properties (no difficulties with noun or verb inflections in Bengali). Among the two participants with AD, the individual who showed lower proficiency and usage in L2 (English) demonstrated reduced syntactic complexity and morphosyntactic richness in English. Evidence from these case studies suggests that language impairment features in AD are not universal across languages, particularly in comparison to impairments typically associated with language breakdowns in English. This study underscores the importance of establishing connected speech profiles in AD for non-English-speaking populations, especially for structurally different languages. This would in turn lead to the development of language-specific markers that can facilitate early detection of language deterioration and aid in improving diagnosis of AD in individuals belonging to underserved linguistically diverse populations. https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.25412458.

Spanglish: From olla podrida to tasty menudo y más

ABSTRACT For many Spanish speakers, Spanglish is perceived as a bastardized form of Spanish that does not count as “real” Spanish. This view rests on the assumption that there is a “real” Spanish, which operates by a set of grammatical, lexical and morphological rules such that when bilingual speakers mix into these rules elements that belong to English, they produce “ill-formed” expressions like “Mamá, púshame en el columpio” and “Porque no me llamas pa’ tras,” and macaronic languaging like “Creo que she’s not wachando la movie.” In this paper, I argue that this portrayal of Spanglish is based on prescriptive, deficit models that ignore socio-cultural transborder realities of Spanish and English and bilingual language users in contact. Drawing on examples from bilingual children’s literature, bilingual (hybrid) discourse, and bilingual cultural models, I show that Spanglish is not only linguistically well-formed, but also a genuine reflection of bilingual transborder identity affiliations for many Spanglish users living along the US-Mexican regions of the United States. Based on the analyses of the examples, I present the case that serious study of Spanglish within bilingual communities needs to place it within the socio-cultural, transborder contexts that contribute to its development and use.

Do accent and input modality modulate processing of language switches in bilingual language comprehension?

We examined how bilinguals process language switches between their first (L1) and second language (L2). Language switching costs (slower responses to language switch than nonswitch trials) appear to arise more systematically in production than in comprehension, possibly because the latter context might sometimes elicit less language coactivation (Declerck et al., 2019). This might reduce language competition and in turn the need for bilinguals to apply language control when processing language switches. Yet even in comprehension, language coactivation may vary depending on variables such as the accent of the speaker (e.g., whether the L2 words are pronounced with an L1 or L2 accent) and input modality (spoken or written). In three experiments conducted during 2021-2022, we tested how unbalanced Mandarin-English bilinguals processed language switches during comprehension and the potential influence of a speaker's accent and input modality. Overall, across settings, participants experienced significant language switching costs. In some conditions, switching costs were larger to L1-Mandarin than to L2-English, an asymmetry consistent with the participants' dominance in L1-Mandarin and the application of language control. However, manipulating accent and input modality did not influence language switches, suggesting they did not impact language coactivation sufficiently to modulate language control. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Phonological properties of logographic words modulate brain activation in bilinguals: a comparative study of Chinese characters and Japanese Kanji.

The brain networks for the first (L1) and second (L2) languages are dynamically formed in the bilingual brain. This study delves into the neural mechanisms associated with logographic-logographic bilingualism, where both languages employ visually complex and conceptually rich logographic scripts. Using functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging, we examined the brain activity of Chinese-Japanese bilinguals and Japanese-Chinese bilinguals as they engaged in rhyming tasks with Chinese characters and Japanese Kanji. Results showed that Japanese-Chinese bilinguals processed both languages using common brain areas, demonstrating an assimilation pattern, whereas Chinese-Japanese bilinguals recruited additional neural regions in the left lateral prefrontal cortex for processing Japanese Kanji, reflecting their accommodation to the higher phonological complexity of L2. In addition, Japanese speakers relied more on the phonological processing route, while Chinese speakers favored visual form analysis for both languages, indicating differing neural strategy preferences between the 2 bilingual groups. Moreover, multivariate pattern analysis demonstrated that, despite the considerable neural overlap, each bilingual group formed distinguishable neural representations for each language. These findings highlight the brain's capacity for neural adaptability and specificity when processing complex logographic languages, enriching our understanding of the neural underpinnings supporting bilingual language processing.