Language Vitality Research Articles

"Charming yet challenging": Exploring ethnolinguistic identity perceptions of Khalajs through positioning theory

This paper provides an in-depth exploration of the ethnolinguistic identity of Khalaj speakers, an endangered minority language community in Central Iran, through the lens of positioning theory. In a socio-political landscape dominated by a monolingual policy that elevates Persian in nearly all social and institutional contexts, minority languages such as Khalaj face increasing marginalization. This policy significantly reduces the functional spaces where Khalaj is used, adversely affecting the language's vitality and prospects for survival. The study investigates how Khalaj-speaking communities position their language in relation to the dominant Persian, examining their perceptions of ethnolinguistic vitality. Utilizing qualitative methods, data were gathered through semi-structured interviews and detailed fieldwork notes. Interviews with six key informants from the Khalaj-speaking community provided rich insights into how speakers perceive their language's future, the challenges it encounters, and the influence of Persian as the socially dominant language. Fieldwork observations further enriched this data, capturing the everyday language practices and dynamics within the community. The findings reveal that Khalaj speakers perceive their language’s vitality as low, reflecting significant concerns regarding its endangerment and limited use in both public and private spheres. In contrast, they recognize the vitality of Persian as overwhelmingly high, acknowledging its predominance in education, governance, and media. These perceptions highlight the positioning of Khalaj within the sociolinguistic landscape, revealing the pressures that contribute to language shift and the potential for revitalization efforts. This qualitative study illustrates the complex interplay between minority and dominant languages in Iran, emphasizing the charming yet challenging nature of maintaining ethnolinguistic vitality for endangered languages like Khalaj through the framework of positioning theory.

Telaah Integratif Pendekatan Linguistik dan Tradisional Terhadap Kaidah Ibdal dalam Derivasi Kata Arab

This study aims to analyze the ibdal rule in Arabic word derivation with an integrative approach between traditional methods and modern linguistics. The ibdal rule, namely the change of one letter into another letter in a word, has long been a concern in classical Arabic studies. The traditional approach views ibdal as part of an effort to maintain the purity and beauty of the Arabic language, based on oral history, analysis of ancient poetry, and readings of the Qur'an. Meanwhile, modern linguistics views ibdal as a rational phonological phenomenon, occurring due to phonetic considerations, ease of articulation, and social dynamics. Through an integrative study, this study found that a comprehensive understanding of ibdal can only be achieved by combining an appreciation of classical Arabic heritage with scientific analysis based on modern phonology and morphology. The results of this study indicate that ibdal is not only linguistic, but also reflects the vitality of the Arabic language in responding to changes in the times. The integration of these two approaches also has an impact on the development of curriculum, teaching methods, and the expansion of Arabic language research space towards a more interdisciplinary direction. This study emphasizes the importance of building a scientific attitude that respects tradition while being open to renewal in Arabic studies. Thus, it is hoped that this research can be a significant contribution to the development of Arabic linguistic studies in a contemporary academic context.

The Role of Buddhism in the Language Ecology and Vitality of Tai Phake in Assam (India) and Wutun in Qinghai (China)

This study examines the role of Buddhism in the vitality of local languages as an asset of indigenous traditions, focusing on two geographically disconnected minority language communities: Tai Phake in the state of Assam, India, and Wutun (Ngandehua) in the Qinghai province of China. The investigation addresses various factors related to the ecology of speech communities discussed in connection with religion. The data are based on longitudinal observations from personal fieldwork in the respective locations over the past two decades. The descriptive and comparative analysis applies an ecology-based typology of minority language situations to assess the contribution of individual factors in three different domains (speakers, language, and setting) to the vitality of the Tai Phake and Wutun languages. The results reveal several areas in which Buddhism as a cultural authority has noticeably contributed to language preservation. The effects of Buddhism are considered significant in enhancing demographic stability, social setting, attitudes, awareness of historical legacy, education in monasteries, and sustainable economics. In contrast, religion does not account for the vitality of these local languages in situations where a low degree of dialectal variation does not complicate intergenerational transmission of language, the minority status of the speech community is unique, and space for language in the institutionalised domain of use is insufficiently provided.

Revisiting the Philippine ethnolinguistic vitality

Abstract Socio-political factors and pragmatism are frequently cited for language attrition and endangerment. Thus, UNESCO has drawn attention to language vitality research as it is pivotal for language planning and revitalization programs. Bugkalot is an indigenous language that strives for survival in a multilingual community. Based on UNESCO’s framework, this ethnographic study investigated the degree of vitality of the Bugkalot language. Today, the language is definitely endangered due to the disruption of intergenerational transmission. Tagalog and Ilocano now dominate the domains of language use and have begun to penetrate the homes. Likewise, Bugkalot language has dwindling social domains and is not used in school. It has no conventional orthography, insufficient documentation, and is spoken by the minority. Nonetheless, the community shows a positive attitude toward their heritage language. The findings of this study may help persuade the language community and the authorities to establish language revitalization programs.

Assessing language vitality and analyzing factors behind language maintenance and language shift: the case of Hakka in Thailand

ABSTRACT This paper examines the vitality of Hakka Chinese in Thailand using the Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale (EGIDS) and identifies social and geographic factors affecting language shift. Data were collected through a questionnaire survey involving 3,442 participants from 38 hakka communities. The survey data were complemented by semi-structured interviews with 190 participants, providing detailed information on language use in various communicative settings. The results show that the majority of Hakka communities are at EGIDS levels 7 (Shifting) to 8b (Nearly Extinct). Standard Thai and Thai dialects dominate both public and private domains of use. However, Hakka is still actively maintained in Betong Municipality, Yala Province, southern Thailand, where the Betong Hakka community is at EGIDS level 6a (Vigorous). In this paper, we contend that the isolated physical location, limited accessibility, and a local language ecology characterized by extensive small-scale multilingualism are key factors promoting language vitality.

Language Preservation through Public Signage: Analyzing the Linguistic Landscape of the Indonesia-Timor Leste Border

The border between Indonesia and Timor Leste presents a rich and complex sociolinguistic landscape, shaped by centuries of historical, cultural, and economic interactions between communities on both sides. This study investigates the vitality of local languages in the border regions using a linguistic landscape approach, with a particular focus on the presence and function of public signage in urban centers and along cross-border routes. The research aims to explore three core aspects: (1) the presence and status of local languages in public spaces, (2) the influence of cross-border mobility and interaction on language use, and (3) the broader implications for language policy and efforts at cultural preservation. Fieldwork was conducted in the Indonesian towns of Kefamenanu and Atambua, as well as at the cross-border posts, where both government and privately installed signs were analyzed. The findings reveal that Indonesian overwhelmingly dominates public signage, while local languages such as Tetum, Dawan, and Kupang Malay are notably underrepresented despite their continued use in daily conversation and cultural expression. Factors such as urbanization, internal migration, national language policy, and educational priorities have contributed to the reduced public visibility of these regional languages. The study argues that public signage is a powerful tool that reflects broader linguistic hierarchies and power relations. To revitalize and sustain local languages, it recommends the integration of bilingual or multilingual signage, the incorporation of local languages in educational curricula and tourism programs, and collaborative cross-border initiatives aimed at promoting shared linguistic and cultural heritage.

Exploring Teenager’s Language Attitudes towards Javanese Language

Language attitudes significantly influence language vitality and revitalization, shaping users' language choices. In Indonesia, indigenous languages, including Javanese, are declining in use, particularly among younger generations who prefer Indonesian for daily communication. Family language policies, where parents prioritize Indonesian over indigenous languages, contribute to this trend. This study investigates teenagers’ language attitudes towards Javanese, aiming to inform strategies for preserving the language. Using a mixed-method sociolinguistic approach, the researchers collected data through surveys and interviews, examining factors like cultural identity, social dynamics, educational experiences, and media exposure. The study involves Junior High School students, with 127 survey responses and 42 respondents joining the interviews. The findings reveal that 44.1% of respondents learned Javanese as their mother tongue, while 55.1% acquired Indonesian. Proficiency in Javanese varies: 41.7% can fluently use Javanese Ngoko, but only 4.7% are fluent in Krama. Javanese Ngoko is mainly used within families and local communities, whereas Indonesian dominates in schools and public spaces, influenced by its perceived utility and globalization. Despite challenges, including limited learning resources and fear of misuse, respondents view Javanese positively, driven by cultural pride and ethnic identity. These findings highlight the need for targeted strategies to empower teenagers to preserve and revitalize Javanese. Addressing language attitudes and increasing exposure to Javanese could help reverse its decline.

Embracing linguistic diversity

This paper examines the implementation of plurilingual approaches in the teaching of French vocabulary in Franco-Ontarian schools. Through a qualitative analysis of the practices of three experienced teachers, the study highlights innovative pedagogical practices that leverage linguistic diversity to enhance students’ learning of vocabulary and foster a deeper appreciation for plurilingualism in the classroom. The findings of this multiple case study, derived from a series of semi-structured interviews, demonstrate how teaching concepts like cognates, idiomatic expressions, prefixes, and suffixes within a plurilingual framework can cultivate engaging and inclusive learning environments. Furthermore, the role of plurilingual texts and parental involvement in enriching vocabulary instruction is emphasized, showcasing the collaborative efforts between teachers, students, and families in language education. This study highlights how linguistic diversity can form the basis for meaningful vocabulary instruction in French Ontario, ultimately contributing to the vitality and longevity of the French language in the province.

The Language Ecology and Endangerment of Solon, a Tungusic Language Spoken in China

Abstract Solon, a Northern Tungusic language spoken in Hulunbuir, China, is currently the most viable Tungusic language, with approximately 20,000 speakers. This article presents a sociolinguistic survey based on two months of fieldwork in the Ewenke Autonomous Banner, a key Solon-speaking area with 10,000 speakers. The data was gathered through observation, interviews, and questionnaires across different age groups, focusing on language proficiency, language use, intermarriage of the Solon community, and language attitudes. Although Solon retains certain language vitality, it faces severe danger due to declining language assessments among younger generations (aged 13–25). The endangerment level of the Solon language is rapidly approaching the “definitely endangered” status, underscoring the urgency of preservation efforts.

Online linguistic landscaping and indigenous languages in multilingual Ghana

ABSTRACT Understanding the patterns of linguistic choices, multilingualism, language dominance and the situation of marginalised languages is increasingly critical to addressing the complex language problems of the contemporary society. Both within and outside the purview of linguistic landscape studies, traditional offline-based scholarly explorations of these crucial areas to language and society abound. What is lacking is the investigation of language situation in the online digital spaces from the angle of linguistic landscape, particularly focussing on African scenarios. This study deploys a linguistic landscape approach to investigating the choice of semiotic resources, multilingualism and language dominance in the online WhatsApp space as utilised by the intelligentsia in Ghanaian universities. The analysis is largely qualitative. Findings reveal acute marginalisation of indigenous African languages, including those of Ghana in landslide favour of English. This creates a cause for concern about the future vitality of the indigenous languages since the exponential online social media communication spaces are intractably superseding the oral based, face-to-face communication in the contemporary technology driven world. Conversely, online social media by their context collapse affordance are strategically positioned to be leveraged for the promotion of marginalised languages. The study reifies theorisations of online-offline space interconnection in linguistic landscape studies. Finally, the study proffers recommendations that potentially address the critical question of the diminished salience of indigenous Ghanaian languages and the likes in the online digital spaces.

Modeling Language Attitudes: Attitudinal Measurements and Linguistic Behavior in Two Bilingual Communities

This paper investigates whether attitudinal measures can predict usage in two bilingual communities with radically different language policies. We compare 163 participants’ (ages 24–36) rates of spontaneous language usage to two attitudinal measures among Welsh—English and Lombard—Italian bilinguals. Usage rates are found to correlate with Matched Guise Technique status scores for Lombard and to predict solidarity scores for Welsh. A different picture emerges from the Implicit Association Test, with scores correlating with usage for Welsh but not for Lombard. We link these findings to the radically different levels of sociopolitical support associated with the regional/minority languages and the nature of the two attitudinal measures. Our findings suggest that the utility of different attitudinal measures depends partly on sociopolitical circumstances and on the type of association intrinsically addressed in each measure. These have important implications for both the study of language attitudes and research on language vitality.

Community-based Language Development of Northern Catanduanes, Philippines

This study determined the language status of Northern Catanduanes spoken in Caramoran, Province of Catanduanes, and a language spoken by the local folks but not widely used outside of their community. Conducted at the height of the pandemic, the Functions, Acquisitions, Motivations, Environment, and Differentiation (FAMED) conditions identified the common factors that determined the level of language use, while the Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale (EGIDS) measured the level of language use and vitality. Ten participants who are native speakers were selected through purposive sampling based on the Sustainable Use Model (SUM) that provided the framework for evaluating the sustainability of Northern Catanduanes. The data were collected through online focus group discussions (FGD) and survey questionnaire. The findings suggest that the EGIDS level for Northern Catanduanes is Level 5 Developing, which means “the language is being used by some though this is not yet widespread or sustainable language is in vigorous use with literature in a standardized form.” It does not enjoy the same vigorous use and prestige as the other languages of the Bicol Region, because not much is written in Caramoranon; though the locals see its importance as they widely use the language. But it is not the dominant language in trade, government, and education. A coordination with the local education sector, Bicol University, and the Local Government Unit (LGU) for the creation of a working orthography of the Caramoran language is highly recommended by the key informants to reinforce the conditions of sustainable language use and the preservation of the local Caramoran language including comparative studies to gain insights about language vitality that may lead to crafting orthographies and strengthening the MTB-MLE program.

Projected speaker numbers and dormancy risks of Canada's Indigenous languages.

UNESCO launched the International Decade of Indigenous Languages in 2022 to draw attention to the impending loss of nearly half of the world's linguistic diversity. However, how the speaker numbers and dormancy risks of these languages will evolve remains largely unexplored. Here, we use Canadian census data and probabilistic population projection to estimate changes in speaker numbers and dormancy risks of 27 Indigenous languages. Our model suggests that speaker numbers could, over the period 2001-2101, decline by more than 90% in 16 languages and that dormancy risks could surpass 50% among five. Since the declines are greater among already less commonly spoken languages, just nine languages could account for more than 99% of all Canadian Indigenous language speakers in 2101. Finally, dormancy risks tend to be higher among isolates and within specific language families, providing additional evidence about the uneven nature of language endangerment worldwide. Our approach further illustrates the magnitude of the crisis in linguistic diversity and suggests that demographic projection could be a useful tool in assessing the vitality of the world's languages.

Changing phases of linguistic ecology in Tanzania: The vitality of ethnic languages

: This article explores the vitality of Tanzania’s ethnic languages. The study examines the relationship between language ecology and language vitality. Like many minority languages around the world, Tanzania’s ethnic languages are under threat of extinction. This threat is primarily attributed to speakers of those languages abandoning them in favour of Kiswahili, the national and official language of Tanzania. The article comprehensively analyses the sociopolitical environment that has contributed to the current situation. Based on the arguments from critical analysis of secondary sources, the article presents a historical and eclectic account of the factors that have contributed to the marginalisation of ethnic languages in the prevailing sociopolitical environment. The article argues that for a language maintenance programme to succeed in Tanzania, the sociopolitical environment responsible for the current state of ethnic languages must be addressed.

Relevance and effectiveness in translation planning into minoritized languages: an evaluation of translation subsidies in the Galician publishing industry

Abstract Since the approval of the Estatuto de Autonomía de Galicia (EAG) in 1981, Galician has undergone continuous language planning (LP) efforts. While several authors have examined various aspects of this planning process, studies evaluating the overall relevance and effectiveness of measures remain limited. To contribute to this evaluation, this study examines the use of translation as a means of LP for Galician. After providing an overview of translation as a fundamental tool in minority LP, the paper focuses on the Galician publishing industry, which has been consistently subsidized by the Galician government to promote language development. Specifically, the paper looks for correlations between subsidies for translation into Galician (inputs), translations published in Galician (outputs) and citizens using the minoritized language and consuming books and cultural products (outcomes), based mainly on data from regional government sources and the publishing industry. In analysing the use of translation subsidies as a LP strategy, this paper seeks to shed light on their relevance and effectiveness in contributing to the development of the Galician language. Also, the evaluation of translation-based measures in the publishing industry provides valuable insights into the success of these initiatives and their impact on language vitality.

Sign language vitality through the lens of a pioneering interactive Atlas: a first look at the sociolinguistic profile data collected by the Sign Hub project

Abstract To investigate the under-researched topic of sign language vitality, the authors evaluate a set of sociolinguistic data gathered as part of the Sign Hub project. The subproject Atlas aimed to create an interactive online tool for researchers, teachers, and interpreters to compare sign languages’ sociolinguistic, grammatical, lexical, and phonological features. This paper presents an analysis of ten sign languages, i.e. the first batch of socio-historical data submitted to the subproject. The authors find that nearly all of them have been subjected to oppression, and their documentation is limited. Their vitality is supported by good awareness among the hearing community and use within educational institutions, national deaf associations and local deaf clubs. Vitality is threatened by low provision of sign language media and a lack of interpreter training. The paper concludes that the Atlas has considerable utility in research on sign language vitality, which may be augmented by adding further diachronic components.

Assessing Vitality and Achieving Sustainable Use in the Kshetteli Language

Kshetteli, a recently identified Tibeto-Burman language, is spoken by only four elderly people of the three villages, viz., Jhusku, Salli and Khatti, in the Darchula district of Nepal. Within Sustainable Use Model, this paper with some linguistic and sociolinguistic background briefly describes some processes of assessing the present level of language use and vitality of the Kshetteli language and suggests some effective community based activities after assigning an EGIDS level for achieving a desired sustainable language use in the language. By analyzing both quantitative and qualitative data, this paper has revealed some typologically interesting phonological, morphological, syntactic and lexical features of the language. Besides, it has presented some sociolinguistic features including ethnolinguistic situation, language attitude and multilingualism. Generally, Kshetteli has been found to be a critically endangered language. This language has turned into a heritage language which retains only an identificational function with 9 (Dormant) EGIDS level. Thus, this language, which maintains sustainable identity, has to be uplifted from 9 to EGIDS level 8a (Nearly Extinct) for awakening the language and fulfilling community’s desire to achieve sustainable orality by devising different activities for the transmission of internal life-crucial knowledge to the younger generations. Such activities may include developing corpus and language documentation technology, teaching the language in schools, forming a culture group and convincing the local policy makers to frame a multilingual language policy for uplifting the heritage language like Kshetteli. However, in order to transmit external life-crucial knowledge, at present, English has to be taught and learned by the community members as a large body of external life-crucial knowledge is primarily embodied in English.

Testing Language Vitality Instuments: Falsification and Language Status Evaluation

Different instruments for language vitality are used to determine language status. However, doing so raises problems regarding the correctness of an instrument, especially in terms of differences in instruments among qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods. This aspect exerts an impact on differences in the svariables of respondent criteria, data collection techniques, and the categorization of results. Moreover, a few of these instruments cannot necessarily be applied to all languages in Indonesia due to complex conditions. Moreover, this research is novel because it is the first to discuss linguistic theory using a philosophical approach, especially falsification approach. This aims to test validity of language vitality instruments. Furthermore, it attempts to identify instruments that can be applied to languages in Indonesia. The reason is that Indonesia features many local languages, which leads to complex linguistic situations and conditions. This research uses a descriptive qualitative methods. Research techniques use data taken from previous studies and observations. Data analysis uses Popper’s falsification theory. The result indicated that language vitality instruments require several new alternative theories to address the complex linguistic conditions in Indonesia. The principle of falsification can add truth value in determining language status, such that it can be accepted for all languages in Indonesia. However, the falsification is still required for minority languages and strengthens the truth value of languages that are extinct. This notion exerts a contribution on the deepening of language policy in Indonesia, such that all languages can undergo language vitality testing according to the characteristics of their languages.

Language Maintenance of Bataknese Language in Batak Toba People in Tangerang

This study examines language maintenance practices within the Batak Toba community in Tangerang, Indonesia. Using a mixed-methods approach, data were collected through a Google Form survey to assess the frequency and context of Bataknese language use. The study focuses on individuals aged 25–40, who are primarily active speakers of Bataknese, reflecting the community's commitment to preserving their linguistic heritage. Guided by theories from Creswell, Fishman, and Dawson, the researchers analyzed the data to uncover reliable insights. The findings highlight the significant role of community and cultural identity in language preservation. Within the Batak Toba community, the Bataknese language continues to thrive through interactions in familial and communal settings, despite challenges posed by urbanization and multicultural influences in Tangerang. The study identifies environmental restrictions and specific domains, such as home, work, and public spaces, as key factors influencing language use. It underscores the need for targeted language preservation strategies to ensure the Bataknese language remains vibrant across generations. Practical recommendations include fostering a sense of pride in the language and its cultural roots, encouraging its use in familial and social contexts, and promoting educational initiatives to strengthen linguistic competence. In conclusion, this research emphasizes that language maintenance is vital for preserving cultural identity. The Batak Toba community in Tangerang demonstrates how linguistic resilience can counter the pressures of dominant languages, providing a model for other minority groups facing similar challenges. By focusing on these strategies, the community can ensure the continued vitality of the Bataknese language.

ASSESSING MINORITY LANGUAGE IN THE SOUTH SULAWESI PROVINCE: LIMOLA LANGUAGE

Limola is a minority language spoken in South Sulawesi Province. Based on the number of speakers, which ranges between 100 and 600, Limola is at risk. This situation underscores the urgent need for preservation efforts. One approach to preserving the language is by assessing its vitality. The assessment of Limola aims to evaluate its current status and identify factors contributing to its vitality. These findings will inform future language preservation strategies. The study employs a descriptive qualitative method with data collection techniques including observation, interviews, and focus group discussions. Data analysis is based on UNESCO’s nine language vitality factors. The results indicate that Limola is classified as critically endangered, primarily because the To Limola community predominantly uses the Tae language for daily communication. Limola is mainly spoken by middle-aged and older generations with limited documentation available. This highlights the urgent need for written resources as part of the preventive measures to prevent it from extinction.