The Language Ecology and Endangerment of Solon, a Tungusic Language Spoken in China

Aim: To explore Vietnamese–Australian children’s proficiency and use of Vietnamese and English and identify associated factors that are related to demographics, language practices, language ideologies, and language management. Methodology: Vietnamese–Australian parents ( n = 151) completed a questionnaire (in English or Vietnamese) regarding their child’s language proficiency and use, demographic details and a range of factors as conceptualized by Spolsky’s language policy theory: language practices; language ideologies; and language management. Data and analysis: Bivariate analyses (Pearson’s correlation and analysis of variance) and multiple regression models were conducted to explore associations between language proficiency and use and associated factors and identify the most significant factors. Findings/conclusions: Factors associated with children’s Vietnamese language proficiency (oral/written) included: demographic factors; language practices; language ideologies; and language management. In contrast, children’s English language proficiency (oral/written) was linked to demographic factors and language practices. Children’s Vietnamese language use was not significantly correlated with demographics but rather with language practices, language ideologies, and language management. Children’s home language use and proficiency did not have a negative impact upon their English proficiency. Originality: This study is the first to consider factors associated with Vietnamese–Australian children’s language proficiency and use. Significance/implications: Demographic factors, language practices, language ideologies, and language management were associated with children’s language proficiency and use. The results can be used by parents, educators, policy-makers, speech–language pathologists and other professionals to support Vietnamese–Australian and multilingual children around the world to develop and maintain their home and majority languages.

Reviewed by: Attitudes to endangered languages: Identities and policies by Julia Sallabank Patrick Heinrich Attitudes to endangered languages: Identities and policies. By Julia Sallabank. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2013. Pp. xvi, 271. ISBN 9781107030619. $99. Attitudes to endangered languages is the result of more than ten years of research into language endangerment based on fieldwork on Britain’s periphery—the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man. Although the title and subtitle suggest a broad treatment, the book is not in fact a general overview of or theoretical approach to the topic. Its focus is on three separate case studies, which are discussed in the second part of the book. The book starts with a comprehensive introduction to the field of study in Ch. 1; Ch. 2 then gives the sociocultural and political background of the islands studied, and Ch. 3 is devoted to the study of language attitudes and ideologies. After these three introductory chapters, the book shifts its focus to language endangerment and revitalization efforts on the Isle of Man, Guernsey, and Jersey. Ch. 4 discusses language practices, Ch. 5 language attitudes and language ideologies, and Ch. 6 language planning and policy. Chs. 4 to 6 are thus an application of Spolsky’s (e.g. 2004) well-known and useful tripartite division of language policy. Investigating how practices, beliefs, and management of languages interact constitutes an important heuristic means to understand trajectories of languages and their speakers in the dynamic setting of changing language ecologies. The sociopolitical setting of the three case studies deserves attention. All three islands feature their own distinct languages and enjoy far-reaching autonomy, being self-governed dependencies of the British Crown. In Guernsey and Jersey, the Oïl languages Jèrriais and Guernesiais, respectively, are spoken. On the Isle of Man, the Celtic language Manx is spoken. The level of endangerment differs between the three cases. Jèrriais and Guernesiais are considered severely endangered today, whereas Manx is considered critically endangered after having been dormant (or ‘extinct’) for three decades (Moseley 2010). There are a number of important lessons to be learned from Ch. 2, most notably from the discussion of small islands and ‘imagined communities’ (41–42). This is largely uncharted territory in language endangerment studies, and the discussion of a number of factors impacting on language vitality, such as war, evacuation, and repatriation on some of the islands, is also very instructive. The fact that all three languages are endangered despite the political autonomy of the three islands is not fully discussed. I would have liked to know more details about how negative views of the indigenous languages have entered these islands, how they were spread and reproduced, and by whom, when, and why. Ch. 3 is dedicated to the study of language ideology and language attitudes. It focuses by and large on what publications on language endangerment have to say. In particular, expanding the approach of language ideology for the study of language endangerment would have been desirable. The study of language ideology engages not only in ideas about language structure and use, but also in the background from which ideology emerges in the first place, and the processes concerning how ideology is normalized and spread as being ‘commonsensical’. In fact, the entire book could have benefited from including more consideration from neighboring disciplines such as sociology or political science. Chs. 4 to 6 constitute the core of the book. They relate Sallabank’s fieldwork results to other cases of language endangerment. Her discussions of language shift and language revitalization refer mainly to the theoretical work done by Fishman (1991, 2001). In these chapters, S demonstrates detailed knowledge of her field of study, gained though numerous visits, during which she conducted surveys and interviews and also learned to speak Guernesiais fluently. Her observations of and participation in these language ecologies enable her to give detailed accounts of language use, ideology, and management. There are too many insights to cover in a brief review, but the following examples can be listed: phatic communication plays an important role in grassroots language revitalization efforts (85); among some speakers, fear of language change appears to be greater than that of language...

The Zambian linguistic landscape is deliberately designed in such a way that each of the ten provinces of Zambia has a dominant language accorded the status of regional official language with speakers of other minority languages mandated to use it for all local official transactions. This paper examines the factors contributing to language endangerment and loss of vitality of minority languages, specifically the indigenous languages of Zambia whose native speakers live in the close proximity to the cities. A case study was conducted in the local villages on the outskirts of two cities of Zambia; Kabwe and Ndola. Around Kabwe town Swaka native speakers were selected while in Ndola on the Copperbelt, Lamba language speakers were equally selected for this study. This study was conducted to find out the language attitudes, domains of language use and mother tongue and regional lingua franca proficiency of these native speakers. A questionnaire was used to elicit the participants’ language proficiency, preference and domains of language use. Interviews and observations were used to find out language attitudes and reasons for language choice by participants. The results of this study show that the regular contact of native speakers of the minority languages with the city has negatively affected the vitality of the local languages in villages around these cities. Increase in mobility of people from other regions in search of employment, exchange of goods and information coupled with entertainment to and from cities has driven a powerful trend towards the extinction of native languages in the villages closer to big cities. The study has also revealed that if the owners of industries, mines and other multinational investors do not give employment priorities to locals and continue employing and recruiting workers from other regions, local languages within the investment areas will gradually go into total extinction.

IntroductionThis paper provides an initial exploration of Ukrainian–Russian bilingualism in the context of the war-affected migration from Ukraine to Austria and Germany. While extensive research exists on various aspects of Ukrainian– Russian bilingualism in relation to Ukraine itself, thus far no studies have been conducted on this bilingualism in the diasporic context, i.e., as a language of the first and subsequential generations with a migrant background in Austria and Germany.MethodsTo address this research gap, our paper examines the language attitudes of two respondent groups with a Ukrainian background in the two countries: migrants and refugees who left Ukraine after 2014 and those who left after Russia’s invasion in February 2022. In the framework of a sociolinguistic survey, we describe their current attitudes regarding the use of Ukrainian and Russian, among others, in relation to the actual and intended use of the language(s) in the multilingual context of migration. The survey eliciting information on demographic information, language proficiency, language attitudes and language use was conducted on 406 Ukrainians in two host countries (Austria: n = 103; Germany: n = 306). First, we compared self-rated proficiency in Ukrainian and Russian as well as attitudes and use of these languages. Second, we applied a network modelling analysis to determine the nature of relationships between these variables.Results and discussionThe results indicated that proficiency in Ukrainian and in Russian were the strongest nodes in the model affecting language use and language attitudes toward the respective languages. Our data analysis focused on the pragmatic and symbolic value of Russian and Ukrainian playing a crucial role in the language vitality in multilingual settings. The paper discusses the imbalanced correlation of the symbolic and pragmatic value of Ukrainian and Russian in the diasporic Ukrainian communities. While Ukrainian has gained a higher symbolic status, Russian maintains a better pragmatic one, despite its negative symbolic status. However, we anticipate that the increasing symbolic value of Ukrainian and the diminishing value of Russian will lead to an increase in the use of Ukrainian also in Russian-dominant bilingual groups of Ukrainian migrants and refugees, even as an insider-code in hermetic minority groups.

Malta’s rich history of foreign conquerors together with its small landmass, has fostered an enduring history of bilingualism (in Maltese and English) on a societal level. In light of the value and status assigned to these two languages, this study sets out to investigate parents’ and their children’s language attitudes and ideologies towards Maltese and English, by using qualitative and quantitative research methods. In the qualitative study, semi-structured interviews were carried out in 11 families, with parents and children (age range 8 to 15). The data show that all participants link use of Maltese and/or English to economic, social, cultural and/or linguistic capital (Bourdieu, 1991). At times, use of language can lead to exclusion because the participants’ language use does not match what is expected of them in a particular habitus (Bourdieu, 1977). Ideologies related to social class, to language use and locality, and nationalistic feelings can also be traced in most interviews. At times, parents’ and children’s language use do not match, as different forms of capital are valued by these family members. The participants’ metalinguistic talk revealed links between their identity and language use (Davies & Harre, 1990; Bucholtz & Hall, 2003; Pavlenko & Blackledge, 2003) when they negotiate the use of Maltese and English in their daily interactions, and position themselves and others on the basis of language use. In the quantitative study, questionnaires were distributed to parents (N= 202) and children (N=357), coming from three school sectors (state, church and independent schools) in different geographical areas of the island (Northern, Northern Harbour, Southern Harbour, South Eastern and Western). Four age groups were targeted: adults, 14- to 15-year-olds, 11- to 12-year-olds and 8- to 9-year-olds. The self-reports of language use illustrate that Maltese is the prevalent language used in the home domain. The association between age, locality, mother’s employment and school sector, respectively, was significant with language used with mother. Nine constructs emerged from the exploratory factor analysis of the language attitude questionnaire. Moreover, the multiple regression analyses revealed that language spoken to mother and at school are the most influential predictor variables across all language attitude constructs. The data also showed that school sector and age group have a significant effect on most language attitude constructs. The older groups (adults and 14- to 15-year-olds) showed more positive attitudes to Maltese than the younger ones (11- to 12-year-olds and 8- to 9-yearolds), who demonstrated more positive attitudes to English. Significant differences were also found in language attitudes based on the three school sectors, with children attending state schools showing more favourable attitudes to the Maltese language constructs, those attending independent schools being more positive to the English language ones, and those attending church schools exhibiting a blend of attitudes to both languages. This study contributes to the theoretical debates on how speakers position themselves and others in their metalinguistic reflections (Davies & Harre, 1990). The findings make an important contribution to the area, by highlighting the role of the languages spoken at home, particularly by the mother, in the development of language attitudes. The study also makes a unique contribution in showing how qualitative and quantitative paradigms can complement each other to provide a more holistic insight into the association between language use and language ideologies in Malta.

Aims and Objectives/Purpose/Research Questions: The research study presented in this paper aims to describe some aspects of the maintenance of Russian as a heritage language among bilingual/multilingual children in Saskatchewan, Canada. The study focuses on the relationship between parents’ language attitudes and children’s language exposure on the one hand and child language proficiency on the other hand. The research questions are as follows. What are the language attitudes of Russian-speaking parents in minority settings? Is there a connection between parents’ language attitudes and children’s language proficiency? What is the scope of Russian language exposure of bilingual/multilingual children within and outside of the family? Is there a connection between this exposure and children’s language proficiency? Design/Methodology/Approach: The study was conducted within a Variationist Sociolinguistics framework. The following methods were employed in the study: a questionnaire study of parents’ language attitudes and of language use within and outside the family; an assessment of children’s speech production based on narratives elicited from children with the help of pictures (language proficiency parameters). Data and Analysis: Thirty parents (aged 31–43) and children (aged 5–7) participated in the study. The questionnaire addressed to parents included 52 demographic and research questions. A statistical analysis of parents’ language attitudes and language use by parents and their children as measured against language proficiency parameters was conducted with the help of correlation analysis. Findings/Conclusions: Study results indicate that Russian-speaking parents in Saskatchewan are interested in passing Russian to their children. The study also suggests that language exposure parameters, as well as language attitudes held by parents, correlate with children’s heritage language fluency. Originality: The study indicates that even in environments unfavorable for heritage language maintenance, a child can still successfully acquire Russian as a heritage language. Significance/Implications: The study clarifies the set of parameters relevant for heritage language maintenance among bilingual/multilingual children. It also suggests the importance of bilingualism/multilingualism for some groups of the immigrant population in Canada.

This study investigates the extent to which multilingualism has been practiced in Taiwan and the related factors that contribute to it. Taiwan is composed of various ethnic immigrants who usurped the lands of the existing Austro-Polynesian aboriginal populations. These ethnic languages provided the basis for the way in which multilingualism manifests itself in Taiwan, and were exposed to the impact of various language policies implemented throughout history. However, how those policies affected the development of multilingualism and to what extent is yet to be investigated. This study intends to do precisely this. First, it analyzes the contact situations among the ethnolinguistic groups and concurrent interventions of language policies. This analysis provides the background of the multilingual-make-up of Taiwan. Then, the vitality of languages in the current verbal repertoire is investigated in terms of Taiwanese people's language proficiency, language use in different domains, and language attitudes. The results show that the existing multi-ethnolinguistic community that developed from different waves of immigration in Taiwan has been subject to a high level of intervention by the Government's top-down language policies. The National Language Policy, which favors Mandarin at the expense of all Taiwanese ethnic languages, has led to the rapid shift of Taiwanese ethnic languages, but attempts to reverse language shift via the Mother Tongue Language Policy have not been effectively implemented. Issues of globalization have resulted in revisions to the English Language Policy, with English becoming strongly favored though not widely used. Other (ethnic) languages, although not officially restricted in use, appear to be in the process of rapidly losing capacity at the level of the expression of pragmatic functionality.

This study examines preschool educators’ language ideologies and use in dual language bilingual education (DLBE) classrooms for young emergent multilinguals labeled with disabilities (EMLWDs). EMLWDs require services supporting both their linguistic and disability needs; however, current policies either address their linguistic or disability needs. One equity-oriented approach for preparing EMLWDs is through inclusive DLBE. Educators’ language ideologies can enhance or constrain EMLWDs’ access to equitable multilingual spaces. For example, educators’ misconceptions regarding the bilingualism of EMLWDs restrict their access to DLBE. Therefore, there is limited research concerning EMLWDs conducted in preschool DLBE settings. This study aims to fill this literature gap by focusing on educators’ language ideologies and use for EMLWDs in preschool DLBE classrooms, using language ideology and language policy theories, as well as Disability Studies in Education perspective. As an ethnographic study, the data were collected via participant observations, interviews, and recording classroom interactions. The interview data were analyzed using a constant-comparative method, and the video data were analyzed following Erickson’s five-step inductive approach. The findings revealed educators’ three primary language ideologies: multilingual language ideologies, heteroglossic language ideologies, and ideologies that reinforced English dominance. Educators’ language use revealed English as the dominant language and translanguaging for several purposes, such as to scaffold children’s understanding.

For a very long time, France’s language policy has considered French as the only language of the republic, ignoring any other languages spoken across the country. In such a situation, immigrant minorities are most likely to experience significant challenges in preserving their heritage language. This paper addresses language maintenance and shift among the Algerian minority group in France, which represents the largest immigrant group with 12.7% of the total number of foreigners living in the country. It seeks to compare three generations by examining their language proficiency, language use, and language attitude in order to gauge the degree to which each generation is maintaining the heritage language. It also seeks to determine whether participants’ language proficiency and use are associated with their length of residence in the host country, age at immigration, and language attitudes. To reach these goals, a questionnaire was administered to the target population, together with interviews recorded with a smaller group in each generation. Based on the questionnaire data from 187 participants, the Kruskal-Wallis test revealed significant differences between the three generations in their self-reported proficiency and use of Arabic and French languages, which may be an indication of a gradual shift towards French. The interviews conducted with 11 participants suggested that the reasons behind such a shift are related to: prior exposure to the French language before migration, lack of exposure to the Arabic language, and experiences of discrimination and marginalization. The correlation between the extralinguistic variables and language proficiency has shown no relationship between participants’ length of residence and their level of proficiency in the Arabic language. However, age at immigration and attitude have positively and significantly correlated to participants’ Arabic language proficiency.

Household Perspectives on Minority Language Maintenance and Loss: Language in the Small Spaces

The Nilgiri Hills are home to several tribal communities, each with their distinct culture and language. Effective communication is crucial for their social, economic, and cultural well-being. However, the region's remote and rugged terrain, limited infrastructure, and socio-economic constraints pose significant challenges to communication. Language plays a vital role in shaping their identity, culture, and daily life. However, the region's linguistic diversity faces challenges due to urbanization, migration, and globalization.This study investigates the communication networks and challenges faced by tribal communities in the Nilgiri Hills. We conducted interviews and surveys among three tribal groups, examining their access to and utilization of communication channels. Our findings highlight limited access to modern communication technologies, reliance on traditional modes, and significant barriers to effective communication. We discuss the implications for social inclusion, economic development, and cultural preservation, and propose strategies for improving communication infrastructure and addressing the unique needs of these communities. This study delves into the linguistic behavior and problems faced by tribal communities in the Nilgiris Hills, a region renowned for its linguistic diversity. Through a mixed-methods approach, we investigated language use, language attitudes, and language challenges among three tribal groups: Toda, Kota, and Irula. Our findings reveal a complex linguistic landscape, with language shift, language loss, and language maintenance efforts. We discuss the implications for language preservation, education, and social inclusion, and propose strategies for supporting linguistic diversity and addressing linguistic problems in these communities.Methodology: We conducted interviews with 100 participants from three tribal groups (Toda, Kota, and Irula) and surveyed 50 households. We examined access to and usage of communication channels, including mobile phones, internet, radio, and traditional modes. We employed a mixed-methods approach, combining surveys, interviews, and focus groups with 300 participants from the three tribal groups. We examined language use, language attitudes, language proficiency, and language challenges.Conclusion: Enhancing communication networks and addressing the unique challenges faced by tribal communities in the Nilgiri Hills is crucial for their social inclusion, economic development, and cultural preservation. By bridging the communication gap, we can empower these communities to access information, resources, and opportunities, ultimately improving their overall well-being. The linguistic diversity of the Nilgiri Hills' tribal communities is a valuable asset, but faces significant challenges. By understanding the linguistic behavior and problems, we can develop targeted strategies to support language preservation, education, and social inclusion. Empowering these communities to maintain and promote their languages will enrich India's linguistic heritage and foster a more inclusive society.In total this study examines multilingualism among tribal communities in the Nilgiri Hills, a region known for its linguistic diversity. Through a mixed-methods approach, we investigated language use, language proficiency, and language attitudes among three tribal groups: Toda, Kota, and Irula. Our findings reveal a complex multilingual landscape, with tribal languages, dominant languages (Tamil, Malayalam), and bilingualism/multilingualism. We discuss the implications for language preservation, education, and social inclusion, and propose strategies for supporting multilingualism and linguistic diversity in these communities.

This research examines relationships between social and emotional wellbeing in various language ecology contexts. Previous studies have shown a correlation between speaking an Indigenous language and improved social and emotional wellbeing among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples within the population nationally. This study considers the rich variety of contemporary Indigenous language contexts and the extent to which traditional languages, new contact languages and English are spoken. It adopts the concept of ‘language ecologies’ — the different configurations of languages spoken in a location — to investigate how the relationship between Indigenous language use (traditional or new), and social and emotional wellbeing varies by ecology type. We classify the country geographically into five language ecology types, and use regression analysis to investigate associations between Indigenous language use and social and emotional wellbeing by language ecology type. We find heterogenous associations across different language ecologies Speaking an Indigenous language is associated with lower than average levels of wellbeing in areas where English is frequently spoken as a first language, while it is associated with greater than average wellbeing in other areas. Associations between wellbeing and speaking an Indigenous language are relatively larger in areas where traditional Indigenous languages are frequently spoken as a first language than in other areas. The findings suggest that the extent and type of wellbeing benefits from speaking an Indigenous language are dependent on the type of languages in individuals' language repertoires (person-based) and the language contexts where they live (place-based language ecologies).

Language learning, language use and language attitudes are narrowly interrelated concepts, whose significance becomes even more relevant in diglossic settings involving a majority, a minority and a foreign language.This is precisely the fractured linguistic context of the Valencian Community, where the burgeoning role of English in the educational system adds to the asymmetrical bilingual setting in which the autochthonous language is minoritized in its own territory.Therefore, drawing on multilingualism and language attitudes as the theoretical framework, this study provides an interface between both concepts by focusing on the correlation between self-perceived competence and language attitudes in the Valencian multilingual setting by secondary education students.As part of more extensive research examining the correlation between several variables and language attitudes, this paper builds on the previous findings on language attitudes in Catalan-speaking areas.It analyses the impact of self-assessed competence in both the majority and minority languages (Catalan and Spanish) on language attitudes towards the three languages amongst a sample of 62 4 thyear ESO students from the Catalan-speaking area of the Valencian Community.From a quantitative approach, this cross-sectional study presents a statistical analysis of the gathered data, searching bivariate correlations to determine the correlation between both variables.The analysis of the results and the following conclusions highlight the correlation between language proficiency and language attitudes as well as the determinant role of linguistic command to promote balanced language attitudes and to achieve effective bilingualism.

Heterogeneity in childhood bilingualism reflects differences between bilingual groups as well as variation within a group. We investigate children’s language attitudes, use, and proficiency in their first language (L1) and second language, English, in two bilingual groups. We examine between-group differences in a sample of bilingual children (N = 122, age range 5–10) who speak an L1 of Spanish (n = 55) or Vietnamese (n = 67); within-group differences are measured by chronological age, nativity, and schooling. Participants completed vocabulary tasks in their L1 and English and an individually administered survey to report on their own proficiency, use, and attitudes. Results from Spanish- and Vietnamese-speaking children highlight commonalities and distinctions in the pathway toward bilingualism. Age and bilingual schooling positively related to children’s proficiency as measured by vocabulary in each language. Nativity (U.S. born status) had negative associations with the L1 and either positive or neutral associations with English outcomes. While children’s attitudes and language use each predicted proficiency in the L1 and in English, attitudes accounted for more variance in proficiency than use alone. The results of the current study have implications for bilingual language acquisition and the role of language use, attitudes, and proficiency.

El estudio del bilingüismo se ha enfocado principalmente en hablantes de lenguas indoeuropeas (lenguas mayoritarias). A pesar de que México cuenta con una cantidad importante de hablantes bilingües de lenguas indígenas y español, esta situación bilingüe ha sido poco estudiada. El objetivo del presente trabajo es describir el perfil psicolingüístico de bilingües hñäñho-español, migrantes de Santiago Mexquititlán, Amealco, a Santiago de Querétaro, México. Con esta motivación, se empleó el “Perfil Lingüístico del Bilingüe” (BLP), un cuestionario con el que se recabaron datos de 18 bilingües hñäñho-español que proporcionaron información sobre cuatro factores: el historial lingüístico, el uso de lengua, la competencia y las actitudes hacia sus lenguas. Se identificaron bilingües balanceados entre el hñäñho y el español (n=13) y bilingües dominantes en español (n=5), pero no bilingües dominantes en hñäñho. El análisis de componentes principales demostró que el historial lingüístico y la competencia en la lengua fueron los factores que más contribuyen en la determinación de la dominancia lingüística. Además, se encontró que aquellos hablantes que tienen un mayor uso de la lengua también tienen más altos niveles de competencia lingüística en hñäñho. Por tanto, se sugiere que para el mantenimiento de la primera lengua (hñäñho) es necesario fomentar la competencia y el uso de la lengua.