Language Policy In Schools Research Articles

The Motivation, Structure and Enforcement of the School Language Policy: Use of Kiswahili language within the school setting

Kiswahili is a very important language in Kenya. It is both a national and official language in the republic of Kenya. However, there are concerns that the poor performance in Kiswahili in national examinations is partially attributed to the laxity in the enforcement of the school language policy. The objective of the study was to assess how the motivation, structure and enforcement of the school language policy impacts on the use of Kiswahili within the school setting, The study was conducted in 30 out of 300 public secondary schools found in Bungoma County. The respondents were 360 form three students, 90 teachers of Kiswahili and 30 principals. Stratified, purposive and simple random sampling techniques were used to sample the target groups. The questionnaire, FGD guide and document analysis guide were used to collect data. The data was analyzed using descriptive statistics which included the use of frequencies, percentages and narrations. The study established that the sampled schools had language policy in place although it varied. Some schools had structured language policy while others had unstructured language policy. It was found out that motivation and punishment had an impact on the enforcement of school language policy. In view of the above findings, it was recommended all teachers regardless of the subject they teach should participate in the enforcement of the school language policy. The school administrators should ensure that their respective language policies should be fully enforced in order to meet its intended purpose and the school language policies should be well structured. It is hoped the finding of this study would help MOEST, principals of schools and teachers in formulating school language policy that aim at enhancing students achievements in languages offered in the curriculum.

The ‘everywhere and nowhere’ English language policy in Queensland government schools: a license for commercialisation

ABSTRACT The paper explores the policy logics of privatisation through service provision for students with English as an Additional language or dialect (EAL/D) in the state education system of Queensland, Australia. In the context of EAL/D, specifically targeted policy has been subsumed by a broader umbrella or meta-policy of inclusion, whilst at the same time, funding support for EAL/D learners is substantial. The devolution of EAL/D support to individual schools through autonomous targeted funding results in policy ‘everywhere’, distributed across broad portfolios dedicated to ensuring schools provide quality education services for all learners, but also ‘nowhere’, lacking systemic support and detail on how inclusion should be enacted for EAL/D and with no accountability placed on schools to demonstrate that they are addressing EAL/D learner needs. The co-location of EAL/D policy with a broad systemic policy of inclusion, the absence of systemic professional support, combined with devolution to school sites has had real effects on the policy in practice. The analysis demonstrates there is the potential opening of EAL/D provision to market forces at school sites, where the private sector can potentially sell commercial ‘solutions’ directly to schools, which have greater autonomy over one-line budgets.

Parents' and Teachers' Perceptions on the Language Policy in Primary Schools of Chief Chipepo in Kapiri Mposhi District of Central Province, Zambia

Parents' and Teachers' Perceptions on the Language Policy in Primary Schools of Chief Chipepo in Kapiri Mposhi District of Central Province, Zambia

Investigating the Perceptions of Sindhi Parents Towards Additive and Subtractive Bilingualism and Bilingual Education in Sindh, Pakistan

Pakistan is linguistically and culturally diverse country where more than 70 languages are spoken. Primary education in mother tongue is a basic human right of every child and this right has been denied in private education sector of the country. The division of education among private and public sectors have further pulled the tensions and division among the masses. Language in education policies have been not been dealt with serious consideration in the entire history of Pakistan. Further proliferation of private schools in Pakistan has sidelined the role of indigenous languages in educational domain especially at primary schooling. Private schools are teaching through the subtractive bilingualism mode where one language is being preferred over other languages in teaching and learning context . This paper intends to explore perceptions of Sindhi parents towards additive and subtractive bilingualism in private schools at primary schooling and how this one language policy in schools is affecting their children. For this purpose, 16 semi-structured interviews have been conducted through maximum variation sampling. The data is collected from four districts of the Sindh; Dadu, Hyderabad and Qambar & Shahdadkot. The results showed that parents hold different perceptions about additive/subtractive bilingualism. Out of 16 participants, 6 supported additive bilingualism and rest supported subtractive bilingualism. Results showed that parents were curious that English rather than helping create confusion and frustration for children at this very young age. Therefore, additive bilingualism must be supported that it not only facilitates children but also helps them to grasp complex concepts easily. They demanded that Mother tongue teaching must be supported in private schools Keywords: additive bilingualism, subtractive bilingualism, mother tongue education, English language teaching, language in education policy DOI: 10.7176/JLLL/84-03 Publication date: December 31 st 2021

Language of Instruction under the Competency-based Curriculum of Kenya: Policy, Practice and Performance

In Kenya, the educational language policy stipulates that the language of instruction in lower primary Grade 1 to 3 in rural settings should be the learners’ First Language or Mother Tongue. In urban settings, the language of the school’s catchment area (usually English or Kiswahili) should be used as the language of instruction in Grade 1 to 3. Kiswahili and English are to be taught as subjects. English becomes the medium of instruction in all settings from Grade 4 onwards. This policy creates problems for teachers and learners considering that Kenya is linguistically heterogeneous. The purpose of this study was to establish the actual language practice in lower primary school Grade 1 to 3 in relation to declared policy and to evaluate its relationship with learners’ academic achievement. The objectives of the study were to establish the actual status of educational language policy and language practice in lower primary schools; to assess the relationship between the language of instruction and English subject scores of learners at Grade 4; to assess the relationship between the language of instruction and Mathematics subject scores of learners at Grade 4. The study area was Kakamega County, which was selected based on being a county with a fair mix of urban, rural and semi-urban schools. The study adopted a correlational design. The study population comprised 1,120 primary schools and 10,767 Grade 4 learners. Multistage sampling was used to select a sample of 175 schools from the population. Questionnaires were administered to 75 teachers and mean scores of Grade 4 assessment results were obtained from 1,076 learners from the sampled schools as part of a different, larger study. The data were analysed using descriptive statistics. Inferential statistics were used to test the hypotheses. The findings of the study indicate that there is a gap between policy and practice in lower primary school. The study revealed that there is a strong correlation between the language of instruction at lower primary school and learners’ academic achievement at Grade 4 in English and in Mathematics subjects. A policy shift is recommended to unify the language of instructions in the new CBC framework. This is imperative for equality of outcome in the learners’ Grade 4 school-based assessment under the CBC.

‘It is okay if you speak another language, but … ’: language hierarchies in mono- and bilingual school teachers’ beliefs

ABSTRACT How do teachers deal with multilingual pupils, and what reasons govern these choices? Whereas most studies on this topic have examined teachers in schools with monolingual policies, this paper includes teachers at bilingual schools. Framed by pedagogical theory, we present a qualitative research study based on interviews with teachers in the German state North Rhine-Westphalia (NRW). This area constitutes an interesting research site since 30-50% of the children are multilingual, but language policies in schools differ: Whereas most schools have a monolingual orientation, bilingual schools aim to purposely integrate languages beyond German in regular classes. Our results show that despite the differences in school language policies, despite different professional biographies and independent of knowledge on multilingual upbringings, teachers in mono- as well as bilingual schools reproduce the unquestioned perception of a monolingual norm. Furthermore, teachers at bilingual schools focusing on European languages deem migration-induced multilingualism as even less important than do teachers at regular schools. Finally, the results underline the importance of institutional policies and allow for insights into individual logic. On a larger horizon, the study contributes to issues of language-responsible teaching, equal opportunities, educational equality and social cohesion.

Translanguaging in Polish minority schools in Ukraine and Lithuania

Summary This paper is based on newly collected data from the research project on translanguaging and language attitudes carried out in Lviv and Horodok, Ukraine and in Vilnius, Lithuania. The data covered in the article consists of 90 responses from students at Ukrainian and Lithuanian Polish minority schools. The study involves a description and contrast of the Polish communities in Ukraine and Lithuania, and analysis of the sociolinguistic peculiarities of the Polish language, focusing on translanguaging in the daily use of several languages by members of Polish ethnic minority schools. It aims to report the linguistic behaviour tendencies. The study shows that different state and school language policy contexts are characterised by varying linguistic attitudes and language proficiency. The paper reveals the importance of translanguaging for maintaining the Polish language within a mixed culture environment.

Factors facilitating and obstructing a school development project

ABSTRACT This study describes and critically discusses a development project designed to create and enact a local language policy at a Swedish multilingual school, its context, content and implementation dimensions. The collaborative construction of a school language policy is a complex process, with tensions that need to be resolved. By describing the processes involved in the language policy project we examine the factors that facilitated and obstructed the enactment of the language policy. The data include 25 interviews with school headteachers and staff members, 15 observations of teachers and school-age educare teachers, field notes, and audio recordings of research circles. Drawing on insights from the enactment framework, the analysis reveals three important themes with respect to the enactment processes: continuity, cohesion, and inclusion. Factors such as communication and leadership, but also external factors, were found to influence outcomes of the project, illuminating an interwoven web of contexts and facets for understanding the enactment of the language policy. These factors influencing outcomes of the project will be discussed in the light of implications for the enactment of the school language policy project.

The Multilingual Situation of Ghana and How Multilingualism Contributes to National Development

The main concern of this paper is to address how multilingualism has become very common around the world. It is asserted that about half of the world’s population speaks more than one language. The greatest challenge facing policy makers today is how to maintain national cohesion through language policy for schools in the country. The challenge in language education is not only to ensure a meaningful mother- tongue education, but also to evolve a viable programme in which both mother tongue and other tongue teaching reinforce each other. It is revealed that the additive multilingualism method is encouraged to avoid language shift which will eventually lead to its death. There is the problem of communication. The nation cannot function unless there are one or more languages that can be used for national communication and administration. It is realized that if a choice has to be made, it will be very difficult to determine the relevant criteria to be used in making the choice. It is also realized that in terms of education, the particular language to be used as the media of instruction and which should be taught only as subjects will be a major problem. Finally, it is concluded that, if a choice has to be made, the basis for recognition of the ‘approved languages’ will also be problematic.

School and Language Policy

This paper attempts to explore how and why language policies are made at schools. Language in education is the everlasting burning issue in this world of globalization era. There are several agencies to make, practice and influence language policy in education and other dimensions of the society. For educational dimension, school is an important agency to make and practice language policy. In the context of Nepal, nowadays schools are formulating their own language policies independently and abiding proximal agencies. This paper attempts to explore the lived experiences of the school teachers as administrators and teachers. Two secondary school head teachers, one from community school and another from institutional school were interviewed and had the informal communication as well. Two other teachers were also interviewed, observed and interacted. Schools were found to make language policy considering three aspects: institutional promotion, parents' interest, and contemporary living world's English language ideology. As they reported, students are not so important agency to contribute school language policy making process but parents and their interests are highly prioritized. They were reported that they did not consider national language policy, multilingual reality, diversity, language identity and cognitive investment of the learners. Teachers were educated in monolingual education, so they preferred monolingual language policy.

A Quantitative Investigation of Language Policy in International Schools in East Asia

Many international schools develop a formal written language policy to address language learning and use. Additionally, schools often develop a language policy as part of an authorization and or accreditation process. Although a school may have a formal written language policy, sometimes teachers are unaware the policy exists. The purpose of this study was to examine teacher knowledge of language policy in English-medium international schools in East Asia. Additionally, the researchers explored whether there were differences in teacher knowledge of language policy between schools that have an affiliation with CIS, IB, and ACS WASC and schools with no affiliation. Further, the researchers examined how often teachers followed the language policy and if the policy defined the roles of teachers. This quantitative survey-based study had 544 participants, of whom 387 were teachers. The main finding revealed that a sizeable percentage of teachers reported that their school does not have a formal written language policy or were unsure if one exists. Additional findings revealed similarities in language policy knowledge between CIS and IB schools and schools with no affiliation. Further, less than half of the teachers follow the language policy consistently, and many policies do not specify teacher roles.

Unspoken dialogues between educational and family language policies: Language policy beyond legislations

Linguistic assimilation has historically been a cornerstone for nationalistic sentiments in countries with a history of colonization and immigration, such as the United States. The purpose of this article is to examine connections between language policies in four immigrant families and educational language policies at two public elementary schools, in the context of an English-only state policy and larger sociohistorical language ideologies in the United States. The findings showed that these connections between family and school language policies were dynamic. Although the children, parents, and school staff viewed bilingualism as a resource and paid minimal attention to the state language policy, language beliefs and practices at schools and homes increasingly prioritized English. By attending school, the children communicated these orientations between schools and homes through their increasing preference for English. The increasing dominance of English ultimately fulfilled the goal of English-only state policy, albeit gradually and unintentionally. These findings do not merely reflect an adherence to the state language policy, but rather to the hegemony of societal language ideologies.

Classroom socialisation: repair and correction in Japanese as a heritage language

ABSTRACT This paper explores the classroom socialisation of a mundane institutional language policy regarding the use of the target language: Japanese. Based on audiovisual recordings in a Japanese as a heritage language (JHL) classroom, it analyses episodes when teachers initiated repair on children’s novel English loanwords (i.e. English-based words pronounced in Japanese but not widely accepted and used), in ways that treated them (or sometimes the social actions performed through them) as problematic. Through a multimodal analysis of other-initiated repair turns and the sequences in which they were lodged, it examines how students responded, and whether and how teachers engaged in correction. In aiming to bridge research on classroom discourse using conversation analysis (CA) and language socialisation, the paper argues how repair and correction are practices for conveying the school language policy to ‘speak only in Japanese’. It also argues that these practices have the potential for socialising students beyond the classroom, to membership into (an imagined) Japanese society where monitoring one’s language use as a bilingual Japanese-English speaker may be important because the excessive use of English loanwords can become an object of others’ negative attitudes and evaluations.

The Impact of Silozi Language on the Teaching of Numeracy in the Zambezi Region

The study reports on the challenges lower primary numeracy teachers in the Zambezi Region face when using Silozi language as a medium of instruction. The use of Silozi language as a medium of instruction is part of the Namibian language policy in schools. In the Zambezi Region, Silozi, a lingua franca is considered predominant. The findings of the study show that teachers were unable to interpret the concepts in the curriculum and learners could not express their ideas using the lingua franca. However, when Numeracy questions were presented to the learners in symbolic form and in their mother tongue, they did not face challenges in understanding the questions. The study uses the socio-cultural theory as theoretical framework.

Forging multilingualism: teleological tension in French and Corsican middle school curricula

This article compares French and Corsican middle school language policy. Above the micro-level of the classroom, and below the macro-level of the EU (or beyond), I analyze two policies sandwiched at the meso-level, national (France) and regional (Corsica) middle school curricula. Based on a content analysis of two curricular policy texts, the Reforme du college 2016 and the Projet academique 2012–2016, I contrast the distinct notions of multilingualism constructed therein and the disparate teleological orientations to language teaching/learning that emerge, namely economic versus cultural. The Corsican middle school, subsumed within the French State curriculum, is characterized by the tension between competing language ideologies that coexist. The analysis reflects that, in the wider discourses on language and globalization, the shift in language teaching/learning from cultural to economic foci (Duchene and Heller, in: Duchene and Heller (eds) Language in late capitalism: pride and profit, Routledge, London, 2012; Romaine in Lang Policy 12:115–137, 2013) is not linear, finite, or complete. Telelogical orientations compete, overlap, and are co-present.

Informal bilingual teachers’ language practices and the consequences on pupils’ language choices in a situation of unequal bilingualism: The case of an Upper Sorbian education system

Abstract This paper investigates how bilingual Upper Sorbian-German teachers who belong to the Sorbian speech community (Lusatia, Germany) introduce the minority language during German language lessons in an Upper Sorbian school. In Lusatia, as well as in Sorbian schools, bilingualism is not of equal character; minority language speakers are all bilingual while the German language speakers are not encouraged to speak Sorbian. The language policy of Upper Lusatia gives Sorbs the right to use their language in public life in principle but due to the strained Sorbian-German relations, language ideologies, and hostile attitudes towards the use of minority language in the presence of Germans Sorbs do not benefit from it in practice. The school language policy divides Sorbian-speakers from pupils of German-speaking families and keeps the teaching of Sorbian separate for both groups. Only during the last two years of school are all language groups mixed. Based on participant observation of and in-depth interviews with bilingual teachers during lessons with students of the 11th grade in one Upper Sorbian school this article discusses how teachers negotiate top-down language policy in their classrooms and, introduce bilingualism; and how their language choices affect students’ language practices.

Indigenous Language Teaching Policy in California/the U.S.: What’s Left Unsaid in Discourse/Funding

This paper addresses the issue of indigenous language revitalization in California and the United States as it relates to language policy in schools. How do language policies—specifically, No Child Left Behind, the Native American Languages Act, and those of local funding—affect revitalization efforts? Based on a grounded exploration of language policies regarding Native American communities in the State of California, this paper offers: 1) a close analysis of how policies relegate Native community language needs to the background, and 2) how the realities of funding affect the implicit and explicit statements of these policies. In particular, a critical discourse analysis of policy documents is put forth. This analysis reveals that language revitalization efforts involve more than communities working to teach dying languages; they involve us addressing several background issues concerning existing language policies as well as efforts on the part of funders to raise awareness of Native American language concerns.

The Accountability Culture: a Systematic Review of High-Stakes Testing and English Learners in the United States During No Child Left Behind

The purpose of our study was twofold: (1) to review the literature on high-stakes accountability testing and English learners (ELs) in the USA, applying qualitative systematic review methodology, and (2) to draw substantive conclusions about the impact of high-stakes accountability testing on ELs, reported in studies published between 2001 and 2016. Thirty-seven studies (n = 37) meeting the eligibility criteria were evaluated using the Methodological Quality Questionnaire. Findings indicate construct irrelevant variance (non-random factors that systematically affect ELs’ test performance) challenges the appropriateness of inferences drawn about ELs’ content knowledge based on assessment performance. Further, language policy in schools, driven by high-stakes tests, promotes increased instructional time for basic skills tutorials with fewer opportunities for problem solving and other higher-order learning activities. Moreover, theory utilization was rare (n = 8, 22%). Among studies that utilized theory, few explicitly referenced it to discuss study findings.

CODE-SWITCHING AND CODE-MIXING IN TRILINGUAL EDUCATION IN HONG KONG: A CASE STUDY

Classroom instructions in Hong Kong secondary school context often involve code-switching/code-mixing, with textbooks in English yet the lessons being taught in Cantonese (A variety of spoken Chinese) or a Cantonese/English mix. The code-switching/code-mixing instruction has been a common practice in Hong Kong classroom teaching. However, the Education Commission of Hong Kong considered code-switching/code-mixing instruction as the primary reason for students’ inadequate levels of English and Chinese. Therefore, the Government adopted the policy of ‘mother-tongue teaching’ to promote Chinese-medium instruction so as to reduce code-switching/code-mixing instruction. In this paper, firstly, a summary of the historical background of the Hong Kong language polices will be introduced. Secondly, the role of code-switching/code-mixing instruction in classroom teaching will be discussed by illustrating examples from a case study in a Hong Kong secondary school. Finally, the reasons behind using mixed code and its impact on student learning will be analyzed and discussed. A number of research methods were employed: questionnaire survey, student focus group interviews and classroom discourse analysis. The research findings show that students in the case study school found the use of mixed code beneficial even though the school language policy does not encourage code-switching/code-mixing instruction. We anticipate that this study will shed some light on the study of code-switching/code-mixing.

Environmental Factors That Affect the Teaching of Kiswahili Language in Public Mixed Secondary Schools in Nyamira North Sub-County, Nyamira County, Kenya

Kiswahili is both a national and official language in Kenya .It is taught as a compulsory discipline and examined at the end of the secondary school cycle of education in Kenya. The area of study was in Nyamira North Sub-County in Nyamira County. The Students' performance in Kiswahili language in K.C.S.E has not been impressive nationally for a long period. The purpose of this study was to investigate the environmental factors that affect the teaching of Kiswahili language in secondary schools in Nyamira North Sub-County, Nyamira County. The specific objectives of the study were to: establish the environmental factors that affected the teaching of Kiswahili language. The research used a descriptive research design. The target population was one hundred and fifty five comprising of 35 principals, 35 Heads of Departments (languages), 50 Kiswahili teachers from all the sampled schools and 35 mixed day secondary schools. The study adopted two sampling techniques: Stratified sampling technique and purposive sampling technique. Data were collected using: questionnaires (for principals and Kiswahili teachers) and interview schedule for H.O.Ds'. Data collected were coded and entered into the SPSS version 20.0. The data was analysed and presented using tables and percentages. Findings of the study indicated that most students had a positive attitude towards Kiswahili and the main problem was failure to use of the library facility and inadequate teaching and learning instructional resources, lack of a formal school language policy and use of mother tongue and sheng' performance. The researcher recommended the schools to sponsor their teachers to attend capacity building seminars and workshops with a view to acquiring more techniques and sharing with other teachers on areas of difficult. It also emphasised that for better performance to be realised teachers of Kiswahili need regular in service trainings to prepare them for the changing dynamics of teaching language. The researcher hopes that this study would add to the field of knowledge and fill the gaps that are hindering the teaching and learning of Kiswahili.