Mixed Language Research Articles

Internal migration and changes in language repertoire among Sindhi youth

Today many young members of the Sindhi community are migrating from villages to cities in Pakistan, where the national language, Urdu and the co-official language, English, dominates. This study investigates the daily language patterns of transplanted Sindhi speakers and the impact of such patterns on their mother tongue. Furthermore, as these speakers frequently switch from one language to another due to exposure to multilingualism in urban settings, this study determines the dominant language being used by young Sindhis in their mixed discourse, compared to the discourse of older Sindhis. Reasons for adopting other languages in academic institutions and home-settings were also investigated. A qualitative case study was conducted to obtain detailed responses about the linguistic choices of twenty young Sindhi speakers. Two Sindhi families were also observed to study the language choices across generations in home-settings, and semi-structured interviews were conducted to determine reasons for the mixed languages which emerged. The data were analysed using frequency analysis for linguistic choices and thematic analysis of the daily life discourse. Results show that the young Sindhis in the city of Karachi are using dominant languages Urdu and English in their daily life and have higher proficiency in Urdu and English as compared to their mother tongue Sindhi. Moreover, there are several social, economic, and cultural reasons for switching from one language to another among the younger Sindhi generation, in contrast to the older Sindhi generation.

The Analysis of the Phonetic Interference on the Sample of “Spanglish”

In the following article language interference as one of the forms of language contact is being investigated. The purpose of the study is to analyze the forms, in which language interference, precisely, its phonetical part can be expressed, and to draw conclusions on the basis of the analysis. The contact of nations inevitably leads to the contact of languages in different forms of interaction. These might include processes from simple mistakes while learning a new language to the emergence of a new language phenomena. The highest form of the language interference may lead to the creation of a so called mixed language that is based on the compilation of the constituting languages. The interference may be expressed on different levels of language hierarchy. In the present article these various types are listed with the phonetic interference being thoroughly explained and exemplified. The analysis of the phonetic level of one of the mixed languages called “Spanglish” is being provided to give examples for various manifestations of the phonetic interference. The given mixed language is the mixture of the English and the Spanish languages, which are interfering in all hierarchical levels. The characteristics of the phonetic interference in “Spanglish” has been described; the phonetic peculiarities have been analyzed and systematized. In the present study the method of linguistic description, comparative analysis, classification method, component analysis have been used.

Transformer based model for offensive content recognition in dravidian languages

This paper describes a model for spotting offensive data from the comments being collected from social media. The comments posted will include expressions, emoticons and will mostly be in code mixed language and classifying these code-mixed language comments is tricky. The proposed system uses a multi-head attention model to extract features from the code-mixed Tamil input data. Various classification algorithms are applied to these extracted features to categorize offensive comments. The generated labels are optimized by performing majority voting on labels generated by different algorithms. This system is validated on the validation set and is evaluated by applying the Tamil CodeMix test data from the dataset published by the HASOC task (Task2-subtask1) at FIRE 2021. The evaluation yields an average weighted F1 score of 0.83 and is ranked 3rd position in the official ranking.

Multilingualism in Estonian Poetry

Apart from Estonian, some other languages – from local dialects to major languages such as German and Russian – have usually also been spoken on the territory of Estonia. As a result, the literary culture of the local (small) language evolved in close contact with some foreign literatures and cultures. However, there is still no thorough analysis of how the historical change in the linguistic situation manifests itself in Estonian literature. Our article aims to draw attention to the multilingual nature of the Estonian literary field by giving a historical survey of the relations, contacts, and intertwining of the languages used in Estonian poetry from the 17th century to the present. To reflect the multiple facets of multilingualism revealed in poetry we mainly use a four-level approach partly based on Jaan Undusk’s typology of Estonian–German cultural contacts, adding the literary field as the level covering whatever is left. Thus, we treat multilingualism as a phenomenon observable within a language, text, author, and literary field. In terms of this study, intralinguistic multilingualism means language mixing in otherwise monolingual poetry, while intratextual multilingualism refers to abrupt transitions from one language to another (code-switching) within a text, and author multilingualism assumes a multilingual poet. Apart from the phenomena just mentioned, multilingualism within literature covers literary subfields in different language variants (for example literature created in South Estonian or Russian, but on Estonian territory). First, we will survey multilingualism in Estonia poetry before the Republic of Estonian was established in 1918, concluding that because German was the major cultural language up to the beginning of the 20th century, all poets, whatever their ethnicity, must have been fluent in two (or more) languages. The second period analysed spans the 20th century. The local Estonian poetry of the Soviet period stands out, with a few exceptions, for consistent use of Estonian, while some expatriate poets would also use English or Swedish. Third, we analyse contemporary poetry, where multilingualism is manifested not only by the use of local minority languages but also through intertwinings with English, Chinese or Japanese, thus giving evidence of an open society. Based on the picture emerging from the article we can say that apart from a historical overview, the multilingualism of Estonian poetry also needs closer poetic analysis.

Parents’ System for Developing Bilingual Children in Makassar

This research is a qualitative descriptive study that aims to find out the system used by parents in developing their children to become bilingual in English. There are 2 research questions in this study, namely parents’ system implementation in Makassar in developing their children to be bilingual and the factors that influence the system used by parents in developing their children to be bilingual. The subjects in this study were 5 parents who developed their children to be bilingual and 5 children who were developed to be bilingual by their parents aged 3-5 years. Research data were obtained through in-depth observation and interviews. Data analysis techniques, namely data condensation, data display, and drawing/checking conclusions. Based on data analysis, it was found that there is one system most often used by parents in Makassar, namely Mixed language. It is different with previous research which said that the most parent system used by parents is One Parent One Language (1P1L). It is different because the subjects in previous study are immigrants, while the subject in this research are not immigrants. Then, most of the subject work outside the house, so it is impossible for parents to share two languages. Then, there are 3 factors that influence the system used by parents in developing their children to become bilingual, namely age, media use, and community factors. Based on findings and discussion, it can be concluded that the five parents who were the subjects of this study chose to use the Mixed Language system in the development of bilingual children. Then, the factor that most influences the system used is the media usage factor, especially handphone.

“We Mix Languages When Teaching Literacy but They Told Us to Use the Official Language for Instruction”: In-service Teachers’ Narratives of Language Practices and Policy in Multilingual Reading Classes of Choma District of Zambia

This study analysed classroom language practices in multilingual primary schools of Choma district of Zambia and was informed by the three-language orientation theory (Ruiz, 1984). The adopted the qualitative mode of inquiry and used the descriptive research design. The study sought to address three objectives: (i). To establish the views of teachers on classroom language practices in selected multilingual primary schools of Choma district. (ii). To analyse classroom language practices by learners and teachers in selected multilingual primary schools of Choma District. (iii). To ascertain the prospects of translanguaging in multilingual classrooms of selected primary schools of Choma district. The sample size was 852 participants comprising, 16 teachers who were teaching grade 1 and 2 classes in the lower primary section and 836 pupils from four lower primary classes. Thematic analysis was used to analyze the data that were gathered through interviews and observations of classroom lessons. The findings revealed that teachers used translanguaging to promote linguistic inclusivity and diversity. Additionally, the study showed that most grades 1 and 2 classes of Choma district were multilingual in the sense that both teachers and learners were able to speak more than one language. Furthermore, the study found that teachers encountered communication difficulties when instructing learners from various linguistic backgrounds in Tonga because learners found it difficult to understand the language of instruction (Tonga) consistently especially first graders. As a result, some teachers had to switch from Tonga to other languages spoken by learners in class to foster their understanding. The study also established that translanguaging was a promising strategy for teaching diverse learners in multilingual classes of Choma district as it improved learners’ participation, cognition and aided the connection of what they were doing in class to their language of play and home language. The study recommended that grades teachers of Choma district needed orientation on how to use translanguaging and code switching in culturally and linguistically diverse classes. In addition, the study recommended that policy makers such as the Directorate of Curriculum Development (DCD) and Ministry of Education should reconsider the use of monolingual practices in primary schools and adopt translanguaging practices for teacher training institutions to reinforce the component in their curricular.

Serious leisure and sociolinguistics: English-speaking homebrewers in South Korea and their leisure speech community

ABSTRACT Increasing global mobilities bring more non-native speakers into new countries where they face obstacles in establishing successful acculturation and leisure lifestyles. Leisure and acculturation are attracting limited research interest, but serious leisure’s role in assisting new arrivals in overcoming social and language challenges when they establish amateur, hobby or volunteer careers is unknown. This study explores that research gap by examining qualitative data from semi-structured interviews with 18 long staying English speaking professional workers who pursue hobbyist homebrewing in South Korea. Analysis revealed they experience creative fulfilment by their sharing of brewing activities with Korean family and friends and they improve social acceptance by their volunteer organising of beer tasting events with interested community members. Usefully, language contact with native speakers through all aspects of their hobby enhances their language acquisition and socialisation. Theorising from further analysis supports these rewards are taking place in a serious leisure speech community featuring brewing activity and volunteer activity spaces combined with English, Korean and blended language contact. Generalising, these findings imply that involvement with continuing leisure activities that offer possible serious leisure pathways within mixed language formats can significantly assist non-native speaking arrivals with acculturation in their new countries.

Analysis of Language and Cultural Shifts in The Technological Era in Kelambir V Kebun Village, Hamparan Perak

This research on language shift in the Kelambir V Village community aims to describe the form of community language use based on the age domain, namely children, adolescents, and adults. The type of research used by researchers is descriptive quantitative. Based on the results of the analysis, it can be concluded that the Deli Malay language in Kelambir V Village can be said to still survive. In language selection, the largest use of Deli Malay language is in the family domain, the second largest user is in the neighborhood domain, the third in the work domain, and the fourth in the religious domain. In the Deli Malay community, the use of Deli Malay is more dominantly used in the family sphere and the realm of neighbors which is type (R), while in the realm of work and the realm of religion which is type (T) is more dominant in using mixed languages (Deli Malay - Indonesian).

SOCIO-LINGUISTIC FEATURES OF THE STATE LANGUAGE IN THE DIGITIZATION OF KAZAKHSTAN

The article is intended to determine the features of the state language during the process of digitization in the public social life of the citizens of Kazakhstan. Digitization of Kazakhstan is going on intensively. The rapid development of IT technology has made changes to the structure of the language. In this regard, the article considers the social, political, and economic reasons for determining the peculiarities of the Kazakh language in the field of digital technology. Language units collected from texts on social networks, state portals, media channels, business platforms were taken as materials of the article. Socio-linguistic methods were used in the article: the method of external observation on field research, the method of synchronous analysis in modeling the features of language in society, general linguistic methods (description, analysis, systematization). The current state of the Kazakh language was described using the method of external observation, the sociolinguistic phenomena that occurred in the linguistic situation of the Kazakh language in a heterogeneous linguistic environment (linguistic situation, language conflict, mixing of languages, bilingualism, multilingualism, language choice, recognition of language status, etc. ) was determined. It has been proven that the use of IT technology and digital system products contributes to the expansion of the functional scope of the Kazakh language. Although the "Digital Kazakhstan" program is not directly related to the implementation of the language policy of the state, it was determined that it had a positive effect on the development of the state language.

The Effect of Linguistic Code-switching on CognitiveInhibition in Bilingualism: Evidence from Stroop Tests

Linguistic code-switching is a common phenomenon among bilinguals that requires extensive executive control to manage two languages. However, limited research has specifically examined whether frequent code-switching enhances cognitive inhibition as measured by the Stroop test. Understanding this relationship has important implications for harnessing bilingual advantages in inhibition and executive functioning. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate whether bilingual adolescents who engage in code-switching demonstrate improved cognitive inhibition compared to monolingual peers. Participants were 81 Chinese-English bilinguals aged 14-18, who were assigned to English reading, Chinese reading, or mixed language reading groups. Participants then completed Stroop tests. Results revealed the mixed language group had significantly faster response times on incongruent Stroop trials compared to both monolingual groups, indicating enhanced cognitive inhibition from code-switching. No significant difference emerged between the English and Chinese groups, implying monolingual reading in either language does not differentially impact inhibition.

The Analysis of the Syntactic Interference and the Ways of Its Expression in a Text on the Example of Spanglish

The problem of syntactic interference, in particular, of its expression in a text, is being investigated. As the example, the syntax of such mixed language as Spanglish that is based on the interference and the interaction of the English and the Spanish languages is being analyzed. To illustrate the subtypes of the syntactic interference, a number of literary works written in Spanglish have been analyzed, on the basis of which patterns have been derived in the manifestation of the syntactic interference types in this mixed language.

The Family Language Policy of Javanese Multilingual Families

Javanese is one of the regional languages with a relatively large number of speakers, around 68 million. This significant number of speakers is essential for the Javanese language to survive. Even so, the popularity of the Javanese language tends to decrease, especially among young people. This decline is influenced by various factors. One of them is that young families no longer introduce Javanese as the primary means of communication within the family. This study is interested in identifying the language attitudes of parents in Javanese families who are bilingual towards Indonesian, English, and Javanese. Furthermore, this study aims to analyze how the language policy is implemented in the family. This study combines quantitative and qualitative approaches using data collection techniques through questionnaires, interviews, and participatory observation. Data analysis shows that parents have positive language attitudes towards Indonesian and English. However, their language attitude towards Javanese is not as positive as Indonesian and English. This language attitude is reflected in the implementation of language policies in families where parents prefer to apply mixed language policies.

Learning Putonghua, (not) becoming Chinese: “Sinicized” figures and intersectional personae on Tibetan peripheries

AbstractFew Sino‐Tibetan bilingualisms are celebrated in Amdo Tibet. Registers like “mixed language,” “peasant language,” and vernacular Mandarins are denounced through their perceived association with Chinese colonial influence. However, Putonghua‐Tibetan “bilinguals” are revered among the same demographic. When Tibetan and Chinese language communities intersect each other, a concern for many arises as to how one calibrates one's own “bi‐ness” as a Tibetan bilingual. In this paper, I explore how “Sinicized” figures are configurated for Tibetans. I argue that language works in many ways to disrupt previously stable ethnoracial identities as well as to mediate ethnoracial alignment or a lack thereof. Intersectional personae—binding intersections of linguistic repertoires with biographic fractals like gender, class, race/ethnicity, sexuality, profession, and many more—personify such disruptions for users of languages. I also describe the affective motion—or ethnoracialized anxieties and aspirations— in adopting or sidestepping these intersectional personae for a population that feel they are going through racialization (for different publics) in many aspects of their lives. Attending to intra‐ethnoracial evaluations, I also delineate and compare vernacular colonialism and Putonghua colonialism in showing that “same but different” registers might be a vantage point to a more empirical understanding of Sino‐ as well as other forms of colonialism.

Language Mixing in an English-Medium University Context: Language Ideologies of Cross-border Mainland Chinese Students in Hong Kong

This paper reports on a study of cross-border mainland Chinese students’ ideologies with respect to language mixing in an English-medium university context in multilingual Hong Kong. The findings revealed that most participants held multiple and sometimes contradictory ideologies about language mixing in the university context, often wavering between different ideologies. While their monolingual ideologies privileged linguistic purism and characterized language mixing in deficit terms, their multilingual ideologies conceptualized language mixing as a relatively unmarked language practice, leading to positive evaluations of language mixing. The study also found that some participants moved beyond the dichotomy between monolingual and multilingual ideologies and espoused the ideology of sociolinguistic competence. With an emphasis on one’s ability to use language appropriately in context, the ideology of sociolinguistic competence prompted some participants to evaluate language mixing in terms of its social appropriateness in particular cultural contexts (Hong Kong versus mainland China) and/or particular communicative situations (in-class versus out-of-class situations). Overall, the findings suggest that the complex language ideologies held by the participants not only reflect their mixed attitudes towards multilingual language practices in the English-medium university context, but also reveal their concerns over academic studies, second language acquisition, cultural preservation, and communicative effectiveness.

Linguistic Diversity and Ideology in the Linguistic Landscape of the Coffee Capital of the Philippines

This paper aims to show the extent of linguistic diversity and ideology in the multilingual advertisements or the linguistic landscape (LL) of Amadeo, a segregated town in the Southern Tagalog, Province of Cavite, Philippines. The LL, considered the country's coffee center, will be explored, considering the town's diverse language status, as well as its current economic challenges. The research will focus on 14 barangays that have been molded by 'top-down' and 'bottom-up' forces in the context of the complicated link between the languages utilized and their depiction in the chosen coffee-related LL for which Amadeo is well known. Because English is the most used foreign language in town, particularly in product advertisements, the researcher goes on to define the level of English language visibility, diversity, ideology, and position in the labeling of store signs, coffee products, and emblematic structures in Amadeo's LL. The study is investigated utilizing Sebba's framework on the unit of analysis, which covers (a) language-spatial linkages, (b) language-content relationships, and (c) language mixing as reflected in signages. Extensive documentation of LL items will be gathered and determined only based on frequency count. The frequency count results for each unit will be represented in the coding chart. The study will determine whether there is a high level of English visibility in the LL across 14 barangays in Amadeo, because the proponent believes that the English language's informative and symbolic functions in the LL serve to communicate the coffee products' essential features and details that entice educated local and foreign tourists, while also exuding modernity, sophistication, and globalness. It is also claimed that the town's business and tourism, rather than the preservation of its indigenous culture, are the primary driving forces determining Amadeo's spatial practice, symbolic construction, and language ideology as the coffee capital of the Philippines.

The Effects of Cognitive Control on the Subcomponents of Language Control in Spoken and Written Productions.

The present study aimed to investigate whether and how the subcomponents of language control during spoken and written productions were modulated by cognitive control. In the current study, unbalanced Chinese-English bilinguals were recruited from a convenience sample at a university to complete the cued language naming task in spoken production and written production, which measured the local language control (as indexed by language switch costs) and the global language control (as indexed by language mixing costs and reversed language dominance effect). In addition, all the participants performed the Simon task, which measured their general inhibitory control ability by calculating the Simon effect, and performed the AX-CPT task to measure their reactive/proactive control preference by calculating their BSI score. All the data were collected using E-prime 2.0 and analyzed in R. Linear mixed-effect model analyses were conducted to reveal the similarities and differences between spoken production and written production for the first-step analysis. Then, the Simon effect and BSI scores were inserted into the mixed-effect models of the switch costs and mixing costs in spoken production and written production, respectively, to explore whether cognitive control can predict the subcomponents of bilingual control. The results showed similar symmetrical switch costs in spoken and written modalities. In contrast, there was a reversed language dominance effect (in the mixed language context) and asymmetrical mixing costs in spoken production but neither in written production. Furthermore, we found that the Simon effect significantly negatively predicted the L2 mixing costs in spoken production, whereas the BSI score significantly negatively predicted both the L1 and L2 mixing costs in written production. The findings indicated that, for unbalanced bilinguals, local language control is shared between two modalities, while global language control is modality-independent between spoken production and written production. More importantly, the findings also suggested that global language control in spoken production relies more on the individuals' general inhibitory control, while in written production, it relies more on their cognitive control strategy. Global language control in spoken and written productions separately engages specific aspects of cognitive control, which may account for different forms of processing in global language control between speaking and writing.

Neural basis of speech and grammar symptoms in non-fluent variant primary progressive aphasia spectrum.

The non-fluent/agrammatic variant of primary progressive aphasia (nfvPPA) is a neurodegenerative syndrome primarily defined by the presence of apraxia of speech (AoS) and/or expressive agrammatism. In addition, many patients exhibit dysarthria and/or receptive agrammatism. This leads to substantial phenotypic variation within the speech-language domain across individuals and time, in terms of both the specific combination of symptoms as well as their severity. How to resolve such phenotypic heterogeneity in nfvPPA is a matter of debate. 'Splitting' views propose separate clinical entities: 'primary progressive apraxia of speech' when AoS occurs in the absence of expressive agrammatism, 'progressive agrammatic aphasia' (PAA) in the opposite case, and 'AOS + PAA' when mixed motor speech and language symptoms are clearly present. While therapeutic interventions typically vary depending on the predominant symptom (e.g. AoS versus expressive agrammatism), the existence of behavioural, anatomical and pathological overlap across these phenotypes argues against drawing such clear-cut boundaries. In the current study, we contribute to this debate by mapping behaviour to brain in a large, prospective cohort of well characterized patients with nfvPPA (n = 104). We sought to advance scientific understanding of nfvPPA and the neural basis of speech-language by uncovering where in the brain the degree of MRI-based atrophy is associated with inter-patient variability in the presence and severity of AoS, dysarthria, expressive agrammatism or receptive agrammatism. Our cross-sectional examination of brain-behaviour relationships revealed three main observations. First, we found that the neural correlates of AoS and expressive agrammatism in nfvPPA lie side by side in the left posterior inferior frontal lobe, explaining their behavioural dissociation/association in previous reports. Second, we identified a 'left-right' and 'ventral-dorsal' neuroanatomical distinction between AoS versus dysarthria, highlighting (i) that dysarthria, but not AoS, is significantly influenced by tissue loss in right-hemisphere motor-speech regions; and (ii) that, within the left hemisphere, dysarthria and AoS map onto dorsally versus ventrally located motor-speech regions, respectively. Third, we confirmed that, within the large-scale grammar network, left frontal tissue loss is preferentially involved in expressive agrammatism and left temporal tissue loss in receptive agrammatism. Our findings thus contribute to define the function and location of the epicentres within the large-scale neural networks vulnerable to neurodegenerative changes in nfvPPA. We propose that nfvPPA be redefined as an umbrella term subsuming a spectrum of speech and/or language phenotypes that are closely linked by the underlying neuroanatomy and neuropathology.

The Indonesian-English Code-Mixing on Deddy Corbuzier’s YouTube Channel

Abstract. Nowadays, it is common that bilingual speech occurs conversation, in this case Indonesian-English. The process of mixing languages is called code-mixing. The phenomena of code-mixing occured on Deddy Corbuzier's YouTube channel named Close the Door. This channel invites speakers with diverse educational, social, economic, and cultural backgrounds that cause the speakers mix languages in their speech. Thus, it is interesting to analyze the types of code-mixing and the reasons the speakers do code-mixing. This study aims to analyze and explain the types of code-mixing and the reasons for speakers to code-mix the utterances in the conversations in the podcast. This research uses descriptive qualitative method by analyzing the transcription of conversations on the podcast. Data was determined using purposive sampling technique. The results show that there are three types of code mix and five reasons for bilingual speakers to mix codes in their speech. Based on the results of this study, even though bilingual speakers speak spontaneously, it turns out that they have certain reasons when mixing speech in conversations. Keywords: English, Code-Mixing, YouTube, Deddy Corbuzier, Bilingualisme

Speech behavior of a bilingual in everyday discourse

The article deals with certain aspects of the Tatar-Russian bilingual individual’s speech behavior in everyday discourse. The object of our analysis is the language of everyday communication of the Tatar-Russian bilinguals belonging to the young, middle and older generations inside and outside the family, as well as the specifics of language use in these spheres. We conducted a comparative analysis of the linguistic behavior of the two categories of respondents on the basis of the factual material, collected through questionnaires and the recordings of spontaneous conversational speech fragments. The research was conducted using descriptive, statistical methods and a correlation analysis, which made it possible to establish the correlation between the language situation, competence and social parameters of the respondents. The first group of respondents was humanities students of Tatar nationality, among whom 67.6 % of the respondents came from rural families and 32.4% were from urban families. The second group of respondents were representatives of different age groups of mono-ethnic and mixed families, as well as two representatives of other ethnic groups who have an above-average level of Tatar language proficiency. The analysis showed that in today’s active bilingual society the language of everyday communication is complex and multidimensional in its nature. Its functionality and range depend on the language personality’s place of residence and a communicative situation. In the course of our research, we identified the specifics and reasons for language mixing in Tatar colloquial speech. As the respondents leave their family society, there is a noticeable increase in the number of Russian words and expressions in their speech, which is especially characteristic of the younger generation of bilinguals. As the research has shown, in modern conditions, Tatar-Russian bilingualism is actively developing, penetrating into such a stable sphere as a family society. This phenomenon is also observed in modern families, which implement Tatar-Russian bilingualism and whose members’ first language is their native Tatar language.

Reason of Code-Mixing in Livy Renata YouTube Videos

Mixing language often occurs in many situations in the real life because languages always develop. Moreover, mixing language also can affect people life style. Due to this, code-mixing phenomenon found in Livy Renata YouTube channel needs to be investigated. The videos are on the special three days vlog namely Vlog day 1 Going to Semarang with Jefri Nichol, Prince, & Nopek, Vlog day 2 Grebek Kamar Nopek! Having dinner with Dikta & Nichol, Vlog day 3 BTS acting class! Back to Jakarta. This study focuseson analyzing the reason of code-mixing used by Livy Renata in her YouTube channel based on the theory from Hoffman (1991). Descriptive-qualitative method is used to analyze the data in this study. The steps of collecting the data include observation and note-taking techniques. The result of this study found only 5 reasons of code-mixing with the dominant reason used by the speakers is talking about particular topic.