Language Comprehension Processes Research Articles

Oral reading promotes predictive processing in Chinese sentence reading: eye movement evidence.

Fluent sentence reading is widely acknowledged to depend on top-down contextual prediction, wherein sentential and contextual cues guide the pre-activation of linguistic representations before encountering stimuli, facilitating subsequent comprehension. The Prediction-by-Production hypothesis posits an explanation for predictive processes in language comprehension, suggesting that prediction during comprehension involves processes associated with language production. However, there is a lack of eye movement evidence supporting this hypothesis within sentence reading contexts. Thus, we manipulated reading mode and word predictability to examine the influence of language production on predictive processing. Participants engaged in silent or oral reading of sentences containing either high or low-predictable target words. Eye movements were recorded using the Eyelink1000 eye tracker. The findings revealed a higher skipping rate and shorter fixation times for high-predictable words compared to low-predictable ones, and for silent compared to oral reading. Notably, interactive effects were observed in the time measures (FFD, SFD, GD) during first-pass reading, indicating that word predictability effects were more pronounced during oral reading than silent reading. The observed pattern of results suggests that the activation of the production system enhances predictive processing during the early lexical access, providing empirical support for the Prediction-by-Production hypothesis in eye movement sentence reading situations, extending the current understanding of the timing and nature of predictions in reading comprehension.

Examining modal and amodal language processing in proficient bilinguals: evidence from the modality-switch paradigm.

Recent discussions have emphasized the significance of embodied processing in language comprehension. Nevertheless, continuous debates persist regarding the relative contribution of modal (embodied) and amodal (abstract) processing of language. The current study investigated the contribution of modal processing in the first (L1) and second (L2) language, hypothesizing higher level of abstract amodal symbol processing in L2 than L1, since the correspondence of L1 and L2 (i.e., the symbol-to-symbol assignment) is in the foreground when learning L2. We employed the modality-switch paradigm (Pecher et al., 2003) in both German and French versions with proficient sequential German and French bilinguals (N = 79). Participants were presented with noun-adjective pairs (e.g., keys - jingling) in both languages and decided whether the adjective could be applied to the noun. This task repeatedly requires switching modality between trials, (e.g., from auditory [keys - jingling] to olfactory [soap - perfumed]), typically causing switch costs on response latency as compared to maintaining the modality. Contrary to the hypothesis, we observed modality switch effects (MSE) in both L1 and L2. This result suggests that embodied language processing occurs not only in the first language but also extends to the second language thus challenging the assumption that L2 processing predominantly involves abstract amodal symbol processing. Notably, however, significant L1 and L2 MSEs were found for French, whereas for German already the L1 effect was rather weak (though significant); the corresponding L2 effect was not significant. Thus, the results hinted at differences between languages regarding the relative role of modal and amodal processing.

Non-native language comprehenders encode implied shapes of objects in memory

Barsalou (1999) proposes that conceptual knowledge is represented by mental simulations containing perceptual information derived from actual experiences. Although a substantial number of studies have provided evidence consistent with this view in native language comprehension, it remains unclear whether the non-native language comprehension processes also include mental simulations. The current study successfully replicates the shape match effect in sentence-picture verification (Zwaan et al., 2002) for non-native English language comprehenders, indicating native-like visual simulations. In addition, participants displayed better delayed recognition memory when the shape of the depicted objects matched the shape that was implied by the sentence than when it did not, suggesting that visual simulations were generated spontaneously in naturalistic non-native language comprehension. Additional correlational analyses revealed no relationship between English proficiency and the size of the match effect.

Engineering conversation: Understanding the control requirements of language production in monologue and dialogue

Both artificial and biological systems are faced with the challenge of noisy and uncertain estimation of the state of the world, in contexts where feedback is often delayed. This challenge also applies to the processes of language production and comprehension, both when they take place in isolation (e.g., in monologue or solo reading) and when they are combined as is the case in dialogue. Crucially, we argue, dialogue brings with it some unique challenges. In this paper, we describe three such challenges within the general framework of control theory, drawing analogies to mechanical and biological systems where possible: (1) the need to distinguish between self- and other-generated utterances; (2) the need to adjust the amount of advance planning (i.e., the degree to which planning precedes articulation) flexibly to achieve timely turn-taking; (3) the need to track changing conversational goals. We show that message-to-sound models of language production (i.e., those that cover the whole process from message generation to articulation) tend to implement fairly simple control architectures. However, we argue that more sophisticated control architectures are necessary to build language production models that can account for both monologue and dialogue.

Language and the Cerebellum: Structural Connectivity to the Eloquent Brain.

Neurobiological models of receptive language have focused on the left-hemisphere perisylvian cortex with the assumption that the cerebellum supports peri-linguistic cognitive processes such as verbal working memory. The goal of this study was to identify language-sensitive regions of the cerebellum then map the structural connectivity profile of these regions. Functional imaging data and diffusion-weighted imaging data from the Human Connectome Project (HCP) were analyzed. We found that (a) working memory, motor activity, and language comprehension activated partially overlapping but mostly unique subregions of the cerebellum; (b) the linguistic portion of the cerebello-thalamo-cortical circuit was more extensive than the linguistic portion of the cortico-ponto-cerebellar tract; (c) there was a frontal-lobe bias in the connectivity from the cerebellum to the cerebrum; (d) there was some degree of specificity; and (e) for some cerebellar tracts, individual differences in picture identification ability covaried with fractional anisotropy metrics. These findings yield insights into the structural connectivity of the cerebellum as relates to the uniquely human process of language comprehension.

Childhood Listening and Associated Cognitive Difficulties Persist Into Adolescence.

Listening difficulty (LiD) refers to the challenges individuals face when trying to hear and comprehend speech and other sounds. LiD can arise from various sources, such as hearing sensitivity, language comprehension, cognitive function, or auditory processing. Although some children with LiD have hearing loss, many have clinically normal audiometric thresholds. To determine the impact of hearing and cognitive factors on LiD in children with a clinically normal audiogram, we conducted a longitudinal study. The Evaluation of Children's Listening & Processing Skills (ECLiPS), a validated and standardized caregiver evaluation tool, was used to group participants as either LiD or typically developing (TD). Our previous study aimed to characterize LiD in 6- to 13-year-old children during the project's baseline, cross-sectional phase. We found that children with LiD needed a higher signal-to-noise ratio during speech-in-speech tests and scored lower on all assessed components of the NIH Cognition Toolbox than TD children. The primary goal of this study was to examine if the differences between LiD and TD groups are temporary or enduring throughout childhood. This longitudinal study had three data collection waves for children with LiD and TD aged 6 to 13 years at Wave 1, followed by assessments at 2-year (Wave 2) and 4-year (Wave 3) intervals. Primary analysis focused on data from Waves 1 and 2. Secondary analysis encompassed all three waves despite high attrition at Wave 3. Caregivers completed the ECLiPS, while participants completed the Listening in Spatialized Noise-Sentences (LiSN-S) test and the NIH-Toolbox Cognition Battery during each wave. The analysis consisted of (1) examining longitudinal differences between TD and LiD groups in demographics, listening, auditory, and cognitive function; (2) identifying functional domains contributing to LiD; and (3) test-retest reliability of measures across waves. Mixed-effect models were employed to analyze longitudinal data. The study enrolled 169 participants, with 147, 100, and 31 children completing the required testing during Waves 1, 2, and 3, respectively. The mean ages at these waves were 9.5, 12.0, and 14.0 years. On average, children with LiD consistently underperformed TD children in auditory and cognitive tasks across all waves. Maternal education, auditory, and cognitive abilities independently predicted caregiver-reported listening skills. Significant correlations between Waves 1 and 2 confirmed high, long-term reliability. Secondary analysis of Wave 3 was consistent with the primary analyses of Waves 1 and 2, reinforcing the enduring nature of listening difficulties. Children with LiD and clinically normal audiograms experience persistent auditory, listening, and cognitive challenges through at least adolescence. The degree of LiD can be independently predicted by maternal education, cognitive processing, and spatial listening skills. This study underscores the importance of early detection and intervention for childhood LiD and highlights the role of socioeconomic factors as contributors to these challenges.

Exploring Cognitive Linguistics

In recent years, cognitive linguistics has gained significant traction and recognition among researchers and individuals with a vested interest in the fields of linguistics and cognitive science. This paper serves the purpose of shedding light on some of the most current and pioneering research endeavors in this domain, while also assessing their contributions towards unraveling the intricate nuances of cognitive language processing. Cognitive linguistics represents a paradigm shift in the study of language and cognition, departing from the traditional structuralist and generative approaches. It posits that language is deeply intertwined with human cognitive processes, and therefore, understanding the cognitive aspects of language use is paramount. The contemporary studies explored in this paper have played a pivotal role in advancing this perspective. These studies employ an array of methodologies and approaches, such as neuroimaging, psycholinguistics, and corpus analysis, to investigate how humans conceptualize and process language. One notable study may delve into the neural mechanisms involved in metaphor comprehension, revealing that metaphors are not mere linguistic embellishments but rooted in the perceptual and experiential systems. Another cutting-edge research area might involve examining the influence of linguistic relativity on thought, challenging the idea that language is a neutral medium for thought and instead highlighting how language structures shape the cognitive experiences. These investigations are revolutionizing the understanding of linguistic diversity and the extent to which it influences cognition. In sum, this paper aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research endeavors within cognitive linguistics and to underscore their significance in unveiling the intricate processes of cognitive language comprehension. These studies have collectively contributed to the growing body of knowledge surrounding how language and thought are inherently entwined, reshaping the landscape of linguistic and cognitive inquiry.

Prediction underlying comprehension of human motion: an analysis of Deaf signer and non-signer EEG in response to visual stimuli.

Sensory inference and top-down predictive processing, reflected in human neural activity, play a critical role in higher-order cognitive processes, such as language comprehension. However, the neurobiological bases of predictive processing in higher-order cognitive processes are not well-understood. This study used electroencephalography (EEG) to track participants' cortical dynamics in response to Austrian Sign Language and reversed sign language videos, measuring neural coherence to optical flow in the visual signal. We then used machine learning to assess entropy-based relevance of specific frequencies and regions of interest to brain state classification accuracy. EEG features highly relevant for classification were distributed across language processing-related regions in Deaf signers (frontal cortex and left hemisphere), while in non-signers such features were concentrated in visual and spatial processing regions. The results highlight functional significance of predictive processing time windows for sign language comprehension and biological motion processing, and the role of long-term experience (learning) in minimizing prediction error.

Noun Sequence Statistics Affect Serial Recall and Order Recognition Memory.

Most theories of verbal working memory recognize that language comprehension and production processes play a role in word memory for familiar sequences, but not for novel lists of nouns. Some language emergent theories propose that language processes can support verbal working memory even for novel sequences. Through corpus analyses, we identify sequences of two nouns that resemble patterns in natural language, even though the sequences are novel. We present 2 experiments demonstrating better recall in college students for these novel sequences over the same words in reverse order. In a third experiment, we demonstrate better recognition of the order of these sequences over a longer time scale. These results suggest verbal working memory and recognition of order over a delay are influenced by language knowledge processes, even for novel memoranda that approximate noun lists typically employed in memory experiments.

Verbal working memory capacity modulates semantic and phonological prediction in spoken comprehension.

Mounting evidence suggests that people may use multiple cues to predict different levels of representation (e.g., semantic, syntactic, and phonological) during language comprehension. One question that has been less investigated is the relationship between general cognitive processing and the efficiency of prediction at various linguistic levels, such as semantic and phonological levels. To address this research gap, the present study investigated how working memory capacity (WMC) modulates different kinds of prediction behavior (i.e., semantic prediction and phonological prediction) in the visual world. Chinese speakers listened to the highly predictable sentences that contained a highly predictable target word, and viewed a visual display of objects. The visual display of objects contained a target object corresponding to the predictable word, a semantic or a phonological competitor that was semantically or phonologically related to the predictable word, and an unrelated object. We conducted a Chinese version of the reading span task to measure verbal WMC and grouped participants into high- and low-span groups. Participants showed semantic and phonological prediction with comparable size in both groups during language comprehension, with earlier semantic prediction in the high-span group, and a similar time course of phonological prediction in both groups. These results suggest that verbal working memory modulates predictive processing in language comprehension.

Temporary disruption in language processing reflected as multiscale temporal discoordination in a recurrent network

By juxtaposing time series analyses of activity measured from a fully recurrent network undergoing disrupted processing and of activity measured from a continuous meta-cognitive report of disruption in real-time language comprehension, we present an opportunity to compare the temporal statistics of the state-space trajectories inherent to both systems. Both the recurrent network and the human language comprehension process appear to exhibit long-range temporal correlations and low entropy when processing is undisrupted and coordinated. However, when processing is disrupted and discoordinated, they both exhibit more short-range temporal correlations and higher entropy. We conclude that by measuring human language comprehension in a dense-sampling manner similar to how we analyze the networks, and analyzing the resulting data stream with nonlinear time series analysis techniques, we can obtain more insight into the temporal character of these discoordination phases than by simply marking the points in time at which they peak.

Temporary disruption in language processing reflected as multiscale temporal discoordination in a recurrent network

By juxtaposing time series analyses of activity measured from a fully recurrent network undergoing disrupted processing and of activity measured from a continuous meta-cognitive report of disruption in real-time language comprehension, we present an opportunity to compare the temporal statistics of the state-space trajectories inherent to both systems. Both the recurrent network and the human language comprehension process appear to exhibit long-range temporal correlations and low entropy when processing is undisrupted and coordinated. However, when processing is disrupted and discoordinated, they both exhibit more short-range temporal correlations and higher entropy. We conclude that by measuring human language comprehension in a dense-sampling manner similar to how we analyze the networks, and analyzing the resulting data stream with nonlinear time series analysis techniques, we can obtain more insight into the temporal character of these discoordination phases than by simply marking the points in time at which they peak.

Research Note: Testing the Simple View of Reading in Adolescents and Adults With Down Syndrome.

The Simple View of Reading is a well-supported framework in typical development that proposes that reading comprehension is predicted by word identification and language comprehension abilities. Although there has been some research examining relations between reading comprehension, word identification, and language comprehension, there has been little research directly testing the Simple View in individuals with Down syndrome, a population that often has difficulties with reading comprehension. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to test the Simple View model in English-speaking readers with Down syndrome and examine the contributions of word identification and language comprehension abilities to their reading comprehension success. Twenty-one adolescent and adult readers with Down syndrome (16-36 years of age) completed standardized reading, language, and IQ assessments. Multiple regression assessed the contribution of word identification/phonological decoding and language comprehension skills to reading comprehension outcomes. The full model explained 59% of the variance in reading comprehension. However, language comprehension emerged as the only significant unique predictor, explaining 29% of that variance. Together then, word identification and language comprehension explained approximately 30% of the variance in reading comprehension. The pattern of results suggests that language comprehension is particularly important to reading comprehension success for individuals with Down syndrome, at least those who can already identify printed words. To support reading comprehension development for individuals with Down syndrome, practitioners, educators, and parents should support language comprehension processes.

Investigating the impact of self-pacing on the L2 listening performance of young learner candidates with differing L1 literacy skills

In online environments, listening involves being able to pause or replay the recording as needed. Previous research indicates that control over the listening input could improve the measurement accuracy of listening assessment. Self-pacing also supports the second language (L2) comprehension processes of test-takers with specific learning difficulties (SpLDs) or, more specifically, of learners with reading-related learning difficulties who might have slower processing speed and limited working memory capacity. Our study examined how L1 literacy skills influence L2 listening performance in the standard single-listening and self-paced administration mode of the listening section of the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) Junior Standard test. In a counterbalanced design, 139 Austrian learners of English completed 15 items in a standard single-listening condition and another 15 in a self-paced condition. L1 literacy skills were assessed via a standard reading, non-word reading, word-naming, and non-word repetition test. Generalized Linear Mixed-Effects Modelling revealed that self-pacing had no statistically significant effect on listening scores nor did it boost the performance of test-takers with lower L1 literacy scores indicative of reading-related SpLDs. The results indicate that young test-takers might require training in self-pacing or that self-paced conditions may need to be carefully implemented when they are offered to candidates with SpLDs.

Lack of action-sentence compatibility effect in non-clinical individuals with high autistic traits.

Patients with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) exhibit atypical responses to language use and comprehension. Recently, various degrees of primary autistic symptoms have been reported in the general population. We focused on autistic traits and examined the differences in mechanisms related to language comprehension using the action-sentence compatibility effect (ACE). ACE is a phenomenon in which response is facilitated when the action matches the behavior described in the statement. In total, 70 non-clinical individuals were divided into low autistic and high autistic groups according to their autism spectrum quotient (AQ) scores. ACEs with adverbs and onomatopoeias were examined using a stimulus set of movement-related sentences. A choice-response task helped determine the correct sentence using antonym adverbs (slow and fast) and onomatopoeia (quick and satto) related to the speed of the movement. The low-AQ group showed ACEs that modulated the reaction time in antonym sentences. The high-AQ group showed less temporal modulation, and their overall reaction time was shorter. The low-AQ group showed faster reaction times for onomatopoeic words; however, the high-AQ group showed a tendency to reverse this trend. In individuals with intermediate autistic traits, the angle effect may be moderated by individual differences in motor skills and experience rather than autistic traits. The stimulus presentation involved a passive paradigm. This study provides insight into language comprehension processes in non-clinical individuals ranging from low to high autistic idiosyncrasy and elucidates language and behavior in individuals at different locations on the autistic trait continuum.

Presupposition processing in language comprehension

Presupposition processing in language comprehension

Modulating effects of interactional contexts on bilinguals’ cognitive control: Evidence for the Adaptive Control Hypothesis

Aims and Objects: The Adaptive Control Hypothesis (ACH) proposed that different interactional contexts place different demands on cognitive processes for bilinguals. However, how cognitive control processes dynamically adapt to comprehending and producing languages in different interactional contexts is still poorly understood. This study investigated how different language interactional contexts (i.e., single-language, dual-language, and dense code-switching) modulate cognitive control in bilingual language comprehension. Methodology: Inhibitory control in 36 Chinese -English bilinguals was examined through flanker tasks. Participants’ language and cognitive control statuses in the three interactional contexts were manipulated through three different types of dialogue-listening. After they listened to each type of dialogue, they were instructed to complete the flanker task and answer 10 comprehension questions related to the dialogue. Data and analysis: Repeated-measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) compared participants’ reaction times and response accuracy in flanker tasks across the three interactional contexts. Similarly, their language comprehension performances across different interactional contexts were also compared. Findings/conclusions: Both the dual-language and Chinese single-language contexts showed significant facilitatory effects on participants’ inhibitory control efficiency. Furthermore, participants performed more accurately on answering comprehension questions in the Chinese single-language context, indicating the dominant language effects on modulating bilinguals’ language comprehension performance. Such effects were not found in the dense code-switching and dual-language contexts. Originality: This study provided empirical evidence for the facilitatory effects of dual-language contexts on cognitive control in bilingual language comprehension process, which further extends the ACH to bilingual’s cognitive process associated with language comprehension. Significance/implications: In general, it is an attempt to explore the associations between interactional contexts and cognitive control through bilingual language and cognitive processing manipulations.

Oscillatory correlates of linguistic prediction and modality effects during listening to auditory-only and audiovisual sentences

In natural listening situations, understanding spoken sentences requires interactions between several multisensory to linguistic levels of information. In two electroencephalographical studies, we examined the neuronal oscillations of linguistic prediction produced by unimodal and bimodal sentence listening to observe how these brain correlates were affected by the sensory streams delivering linguistic information. Sentence contexts which were strongly predictive of a particular word were ended by a possessive adjective matching or not the gender of the predicted word. Alpha, beta and gamma oscillations were investigated as they were considered to play a crucial role in the predictive process. During the audiovisual or auditory-only listening to sentences, no evidence of word prediction was observed. In contrast, in a more challenging listening situation during which bimodal audiovisual streams switched to unimodal auditory stream, gamma power was sensitive to word prediction based on prior sentence context. Results suggest that prediction spreading from higher sentence levels to lower word levels is optional during unimodal and bimodal sentence listening and is observed when the listening situation is more challenging. Alpha and beta oscillations were found to decrease when semantically constraining sentences were delivered in the audiovisual modality in comparison with the auditory-only modality. Altogether, our findings bear major implications for our understanding of the neural mechanisms that support predictive processing in multimodal language comprehension.

Therapy-Induced Electrophysiological Changes in Primary Progressive Aphasia: A Preliminary Study.

AimsThis preliminary study aimed to investigate therapy-induced electrophysiological changes in persons with primary progressive aphasia (PPA). The investigated event-related potential (ERP) components associated with language processing were the mismatch negativity, P300, N400, and P600.MethodsA linguistic ERP test battery and standardized language assessment were administered in four patients with PPA of which two received speech-language therapy (SLT) and two did not receive therapy. The battery was administered twice with approximately 6 months in between in each patient. The results of the follow-up assessments were compared to the results of the initial assessments.ResultsAlthough the results of the behavioral language assessment remained relatively stable between the initial and follow-up assessments, changes in the mean amplitudes, onset latencies, and duration of the ERP components were found in the four patients. In the two patients that did not receive SLT, an increased delay in 50% and a decreased mean amplitude in 25% of the measured ERP components were found. The electrophysiological changes found in the patients that received SLT were variable. Interestingly, the mismatch negativity and the N400 effect elicited by the categorical priming paradigm were less delayed and had an increased mean amplitude at the follow-up assessment in the patient with the non-fluent variant who received SLT. In this patient, the P600 component was absent at the initial assessment but present at the follow-up assessment.ConclusionAlthough no clear patterns in electrophysiological changes between patients who received SLT and patients who did not receive SLT were found by our preliminary study, it seems like the SLT induced improvements or compensation mechanisms in some specific language comprehension processes in the patient with the NFV. The results of this study are still preliminary because only four heterogeneous patients were included. Future studies should include larger patient groups of the three clinical variants because the therapy-induced electrophysiological changes might differ depending on the clinical variant and the underlying pathology.

Conceptual Combination in the LATL With and Without Syntactic Composition.

The relationship among syntactic, semantic, and conceptual processes in language comprehension is a central question to the neurobiology of language. Several studies have suggested that conceptual combination in particular can be localized to the left anterior temporal lobe (LATL), while syntactic processes are more often associated with the posterior temporal lobe or inferior frontal gyrus. However, LATL activity can also correlate with syntactic computations, particularly in narrative comprehension. Here we investigated the degree to which LATL conceptual combination is dependent on syntax, specifically asking whether rapid (∼200 ms) magnetoencephalography effects of conceptual combination in the LATL can occur in the absence of licit syntactic phrase closure and in the absence of a semantically plausible output for the composition. We find that such effects do occur: LATL effects of conceptual combination were observed even when there was no syntactic phrase closure or plausible meaning. But syntactic closure did have an additive effect such that LATL signals were the highest for expressions that composed both conceptually and syntactically. Our findings conform to an account in which LATL conceptual composition is influenced by local syntactic composition but is also able to operate without it.