Language Classroom Research Articles

Translanguaging Practices in Language Classroom

Translanguaging, as a pedagogy in language classrooms, has been drawing much attention from scholars and teachers. Four types of translanguaging practices, namely bilingual label quest, simultaneous code-mixing, cross-language recapping, dual-language substantiation, are elaborated in this essay.

Mitigating ethnic minority students’ Foreign language anxiety through Co-learning in Chinese as an additional language classrooms: A transpositioning perspective

Recent studies on ethnic minority students in Hong Kong have highlighted the difficulties they face when learning Chinese-as-an-Additional-Language (CAL). These linguistic challenges can cause anxiety and hinder their integration into Hong Kong society. Transpositioning is an emerging notion in the field of Applied Linguistics and involves individuals stepping out of their assigned roles and adopting different perspectives through translanguaging. It has been argued that engaging in transpositioning can potentially engage students’ learning and participation in classroom interaction. However, there is limited research on how multilingual classroom teachers can suspend their social roles to alleviate students' anxiety while learning a second language in classrooms. This paper seeks to fill this research gap by examining how a Chinese teacher creates a safe translanguaging space for co-learning, which allows him to move beyond his predefined social roles and alleviate ethnic minority students' anxiety in learning CAL. The study uses Multimodal Conversation Analysis to analyse classroom interaction data. The fine-grained classroom analysis is triangulated with the video-stimulated-recall-interviews with the teacher and students which are analysed using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis. The paper argues for a Transpositioning-Translanguaging-Co-Learning approach to reduce students' anxiety related to CAL learning. By positioning both the teacher and students as equal contributors to knowledge, this can foster student engagement and active participation in classroom interactions.

AN EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH TO TESTING THE TECHNIQUE OF CREATIVE WRITING IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING AT A UNIVERSITY

This article delves into the investigation of the effectiveness of integrating creative writing activities within the context of foreign language classrooms at the university level. The primary objective is to scrutinize the conditions and outcomes associated with the implementation of creative writing techniques in foreign language instruction and its impact on language acquisition processes. Drawing inspiration from the theories of Noam Chomsky on first language acquisition and Stephen Krashen on second language acquisition, this study adopts an experimental approach to explore the influence of creative writing on language learning.Employing methods such as contrastive analysis, descriptive analysis, and comparison, the study unveils the pivotal role of creative writing across different proficiency levels, ranging from intermediate to advanced fluency stages. It is observed that students, particularly during these stages, exhibit a heightened need for linguistic expression, transcending conventional academic written outputs.Furthermore, the article categorizes and reviews various types of activities involving creative writing, shedding light on their potential outcomes. The experimental aspect of this research involves the implementation of creative writing techniques in university foreign language classes, yielding promising results. Through this experimental endeavor, students demonstrated enhanced engagement, improved language proficiency, and heightened creativity in linguistic expression.The scientific novelty of this article lies in its unique exploration of the intersections between foreign language acquisition and creative writing, a topic relatively underexplored in local pedagogical inquiries. Theoretical significance is derived from the comprehensive analysis and systematization of a technique that is not yet widely integrated into foreign language teaching practices in Kazakhstan's higher education institutions. The practical implications of the study extend to pedagogical and academic contexts, providing valuable insights for educators and researchers alike.

Teachers' perceptions and implementations of global Englishes and Frenches in language classrooms

AbstractAn important first step to globalizing and decentralizing foreign language education is to clarify current language teachers' perceptions of language varieties and how these perceptions influence their pedagogy. The present study looked at English and French language classrooms in K‐12 and university settings in the United States to compare attitudes around varieties of two dominant global languages with colonial legacies through an anonymous questionnaire completed by 36 language teachers. The study aimed to understand to what extent English and French language teachers drew on the linguistic diversity of the respective languages and if there was a connection between received ideas and attitudes around varieties and approaches taken in language classrooms. Findings suggest that language teachers were influenced by their own language learning histories, leading to a misalignment between teaching beliefs and pedagogical practices. Additionally, language teachers were subject to curricular constraints that influenced their teaching practices around language varieties. Implications for teacher education are discussed.

Teaching Secondary Meaning in Korean -ess-eya ha- Constructions

ABSTRACT This article investigates the degree to which second language (L2) learners whose first language (L1) is English access the nonactualization inference that arises at the semantic-pragmatic interface in Korean. As in English, when the modal -eya ha- “should, must” interacts with the past tense, a secondary interpretation that the complement does not hold becomes salient. The results from 12 native speakers of Korean and 16 L2 learners of varying study durations suggested that L2 learners do not compute the secondary inferences in the same way native speakers do, regardless of their study duration. A survey of textbooks frequently adopted in Korean teaching programs across the United States and in South Korea suggests that this nonactualization inference resulting from the interaction of modal and tense is not included as part of the lessons across different levels. The current study argues that this inference should be taught explicitly as part of the language program for the learners, given the frequency of this structure. The study also proposes how and when such secondary meaning should be introduced in language classrooms.

Plurilingual literary writings as tools to develop students’ creativity

In an era marked by rapid change, educators face a persistent call to nurture creativity in students, prompting them to explore innovative solutions. This study investigates the role of students’ plurilingual resources in fostering creativity within a foreign language classroom at secondary school level. Students collaboratively produced literary writings (songs, poems, and short stories) in which they applied their plurilingual resources (all of languages they knew). This case study employs a bottom-up approach to analyse students’ texts to determine whether facilitating the use of their diverse linguistic resources, including the blending of codes and modes, acts as a catalyst for creativity. The research results indicate that the foreign language classroom can indeed serve as a platform for students to engage in various forms of language creativity. The findings also suggest that encouraging students to utilize their diverse linguistic resources enhances language creativity. Additionally, the analysis highlights that the collaborative nature of the task supports the notion that exploring multiple solutions, rather than adhering to a single correct answer, fosters creativity. Furthermore, evidence indicates that creating a safe environment for learners is crucial for encouraging playful and unconventional language use for creative purposes.

On the Use of Instructional Games in Moroccan High Schools: Motives and Barriers

Background The use of instructional games in foreign language classrooms has a lot of potential. This potential helped pushing the spread of game use, but it was faced with a lot of barriers. Purpose The current study intended to investigate the factors behind the use/nonuse of instructional games by Moroccan high school teachers. Methods This study adopted a mixed methods approach, which was typified in a sequential explanatory design. Data was collected from 215 students and 10 teachers in Allal Loudyi High School in Fes, Morocco, using questionnaire, interview, observation schedule, and focus group. Results The findings disclosed that students reported that instructional games should be used because they motivated them, helped them enjoy learning, and fostered their critical thinking skills. The large number of learners in the classrooms and lack of enough equipment were found to be two major obstacles, in addition to other minor challenges, that prevent Moroccan high school teachers from using instructional games in the classroom. Discussion Crosslinguistic studies confirmed the potential motives and barriers highlighted in the current study. Conclusion The results had direct implications for Moroccan EFL teachers, stakeholders, and students. The implications were discussed at the end of this article.

English language preservice teachers’ attitudes towards Singlish and their beliefs about the utility of contrastive pedagogies in the language classroom

ABSTRACT Singlish, also known as Singapore Colloquial English, has been the focus of many studies, but its tenability as a tool in the classroom has received scant discussion. This study explores English language preservice teachers’ attitudes towards Singlish and their beliefs towards use of contrastive pedagogies in the English language classroom. Adopting a mixed-methods study involving quantitative and qualitative data, 40 preservice teachers majoring in English from the National Institute of Education were surveyed and interviews with eight participants subsequently conducted. The findings reveal that participants appraise Singlish positively for its affordances in fostering rapport and a healthy classroom culture. Despite concerns that language classrooms should only focus on quality input, Singlish is recognised for its ability to reduce students’ affective filter and increase their accessibility to standard English. Participants generally supported the inclusion of Singlish in the English language classroom, using contrastive pedagogies to promote students’ noticing of language features.

The controller-first constraint beyond the Basic Variety: how do instructed learner varieties solve contexts of competition?

Abstract The Basic Variety has been described as a fully fledged system that is developed in second-language acquisition. It is guided by a small number of interacting phrasal, semantic, and pragmatic constraints. This article is devoted to the semantic controller-first constraint, which says that “the NP-referent with highest control comes first” in discourse contexts where this constraint comes into conflict. The Basic Variety, as described by Klein and Perdue, relates to migrant learners that were exposed to target languages in naturalistic contexts and situations outside the classroom. Our study also deals with learners living in the target language’s country at the time of the data collection, but our learners were benefiting from foreign language teaching at university. The goal of this study is twofold. The first part of the article discusses the origins of the key notion of ‘controller’ and introduces related theoretical underpinnings, such as argument hierarchies of transitive verbs and crucial factors determining argument realization. Our analysis shows that the controller-first constraint overlaps with two key concepts of the description of L1 functional grammars – i.e., control asymmetry and the Actor-Undergoer Hierarchy – suggesting that it does not only pertain to the Basic Variety but broadly speaking to the human language capacity. The second part of this study presents some preliminary results on the L2 grammars of Spanish-speaking learners of French in a context of ‘competition’. Our results show the pervasiveness of the controller-first constraint on L2 grammars beyond initial, non-instructed learner varieties, suggesting that this semantic principle is not totally independent of (a) the specifics of the source language and (b) the target constructions of the foreign language classroom.

Languaging-as-practice in science education: an alternative to metaphors of language-as-tool

AbstractThis commentary proposes the metaphor of “languaging-as-practice” in science education as an alternative to “language-as-tool” metaphors. Describing language as a tool implicitly positions language as static and unchanging and assumes that named languages are distinct and bounded entities. In contrast, describing languaging as a practice acknowledges the multiple and advanced ways speakers draw on many aspects of their linguistic repertoires while often crossing purported boundaries between named languages. This approach is grounded in translanguaging theory and offers a dynamic understanding of language in educational settings. It envisions students constructing and expressing scientific knowledge by drawing on their complete linguistic repertoires. By advocating for this approach, we aim to promote practices that acknowledge and leverage the diverse linguistic backgrounds of students, fostering inclusive and effective learning environments. While this approach has gained some traction in language-education circles, we believe it needs more consideration in the science education community. We also critique the limitations of viewing language merely as a tool for reproducing predefined scientific concepts and discourses, proposing that a more expansive approach to language can enhance opportunities for scientific sense-making and knowledge construction. We urge science education researchers and practitioners to shift how we think and talk about language in the science classroom to adopt and act upon a metaphor of “languaging-as-practice.”

Translanguaging: Moving away from monolingual ESL classrooms and institutions

Translanguaging, defined as “the deployment of a speaker’s full linguistic repertoire without regard for watchful adherence to the socially and politically defined boundaries of named (and usually national and state) languages” (Otheguy et al., 2015, p. 281), has great potential to play a key role in English as a Second Language (ESL) classrooms and institutions. This article first explores the origins and historical development of the concept of translanguaging before examining more general recent developments and applications of this concept internationally and in Australia. The final section provides suggestions for how to apply some of the principles of translanguaging in the adult ESL classroom, with a particular focus on specific translanguaging practices that have been used with Direct Entry English for Academic Purposes students.

Recent Research on L2 Vocabulary Collocations Acquisition. What are the Implications for Language Teaching?

In recent years, the study of vocabulary collocations has provided a new perspective for second language acquisition, and has inspired English learning. Mastering collocations of different words has many good impacts on the use of the second language. The major theme of this paper is learning and teaching lexical collocations, which is helpful to second language acquisition. It includes various methods and activities aimed at raising students’ and educators’ awareness of their existence in different English environments, and at the same time intensifying the importance of grasping frequently used collocations of words. The purpose of this research is to specify the vocabulary collocations and their acquisition, to clarify the great effects of studying vocabulary collocations, to showcase specific teaching strategies of collocations that can be utilized in a variety of contexts, and to give implications for language teaching in English reading, listening, speaking and writing skills for young and adult learners when they study collocations in the English language classroom.

How to Realize Effective Teaching in Teaching Chinese as a Foreign Language with Heuristic Teaching Ideas

How to make Chinese teaching more efficient and effective, so as to meet the needs of the increasing number of Chinese learners, is an urgent issue in the field of teaching Chinese as a foreign language. The idea of heuristic teaching has been widely used in the teaching of various subjects from Confucius to today, and the student-centered teaching point of view is more and more adapted to modern education. The application of heuristic teaching ideas in teaching Chinese as a foreign language can not only improve the classroom teaching effect, but also enhance the learning efficiency of students to achieve effective teaching. Starting from the idea of heuristic teaching, this paper discusses how to realize effective teaching in Chinese as a foreign language classroom. It is of reference significance to improve the teaching effect of Chinese as a foreign language and realize effective teaching.

Music listening in foreign language learning: perceptions, attitudes, and its impact on language anxiety

The present study explored university students' perceptions and attitudes toward music listening in foreign language learning, examining its perceived supportive role in their learning process. In this study, “music listening in foreign language learning” refers to the practice of incorporating music as a background accompaniment during language study. With 200 participants from various majors, findings indicated that a majority (94.5%) frequently listened to music in general, with a preference for slow ballad, fast dance, and classical music genres for language study. Of these, 142 stated that listening to music played a beneficial role in their foreign language learning, perceiving it not just as a stress-reliever but also a valuable tool enhancing language skills. A significant correlation emerged between music listening and decreased communication apprehension from the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scales (FLCAS). Hierarchical regression highlighted the individual variables like gender, age, and English proficiency as influential factors in foreign language anxiety, while frequent music listening displayed a protective, inverse relationship with such anxiety. The findings suggest foreign language proficiency demands both knowledge and emotional stability, with managing anxiety through informal practices like music listening playing a critical role. This highlights the potential for further pedagogical insights and more detailed subsequent research.

Language Acquisition Games: Its Effects on the Students’ Oral Language Skills

Facing the 21st century English language learners today marks a bit change and a formation of strategized teaching methodology on how facilitators must uphold and seek highest form of learning. K to 12 curriculum aims to acquire highly- developed language skills, with this, teachers must find ways to uplift the oral proficiency level of students as one key component of a well- developed communicative competence. This study investigates using pre-test post- test experimental design to elucidate the level of oral language skills of 60 heterogeneous oral- expressive students prior to and after the administration of the language acquisition games along comprehension, fluency, vocabulary, pronunciation, and grammar. It also identified the significant differences on each aspect. Qualitative descriptive analysis and in- depth observation was used to identify the learning behaviours manifested by the oral- expressive students. Face- to- face ESL pre- and post- oral assessment was undertaken by the respondents and a Stanford FLOSEM (Foreign Language Oral Skills Evaluation Matrix) rubric was utilized to assess oral- expressive students’ level of oral- language skills by an expert validator. Analyses of data revealed an increase of one level from the pre- test to post- test result after the administration of the 30-40 days language acquisition games intervention. Further, there is also a significant difference between pre- and post- test along each aspect of oral language skills and identified seven learning behaviors seen in the viewpoint of the students namely; active engagement through rewards and punishments, everyone made effort to be involved in the game, properly guided through rules given time under pressure, given chance to speak during class discussion, develop inquisitive thinking through answering HOTS questions, and overcome ridicules, boosting confidence. Thus, the researcher devised an output entitled “Language Acquisition Games: A Kit towards Effective Oral Communication Skills for Grade 8 Students” to develop speaking skills of students. Curriculum developers, materials developer and language institutes might integrate these language games into an English language classroom to at least enhance students’ oral language skills.

Evaluating AI's impact on self-regulated language learning: A systematic review

AI technology is reshaping language classrooms, prompting students to adopt flexible roles exhibiting linguistic competence and self-regulated learning (SRL) skills. Considerable studies explore the necessary integrated learning perspectives, emphasizing AI's adaptive role as a mind tool. In AI-mediated language learning, the technology's metacognitive importance enables students to learn with AI as a partner, encouraging independent critical thinking. Within Zimmerman's SRL model, AI as a mind tool is integrated for improving language students' strategic employment in a cyclical process. A systematic review, following PRISMA protocols, examines the intersection of AI and self-regulated language learning (SRLL) over 2000–2022. Findings highlight AI's evolving role, predominantly through algorithms and systems, aiming for micro and macro integration. Interactive AI has not fully engaged in two-way directions, despite a familiar process approach in reviewed studies. In the favored ESL/EFL research context, task-specific AI is utilized to encourage cyclical improvement with learner autonomy enhancement mainly among higher education students at intermediate level or above. Pedagogical values are possible when major SRL phases are fully practiced, even without highly autonomous AI. Future research is directed toward adaptive personalized technology by exploring the dynamic interplay between AI technologies and SRLL as educational practices under Education 4.0 principles.

Genre‐based writing in the German classroom in the age of generative AI

AbstractGenre, defined as a “staged goal‐oriented social process” (Martin, 2009), has long stood as a key principle in second‐language writing instruction. This article presents the principles underpinning genre theory as it relates to the language curriculum and the five phases of genre‐based L2 writing pedagogy. This pedagogy provides the foundation for a case study in which students in an intermediate, fifth‐semester German class at a small liberal arts college received instruction in the film review genre. Student products written prior to classroom work with film reviews are compared with those written after students had gained an awareness and understanding of the film review genre, revealing the positive effects of genre‐based instruction on student writing. In light of the future impact of generative artificial intelligence (AI) on writing pedagogy, the final section addresses how ChatGPT and similar platforms can potentially enhance genre‐based pedagogies. The article suggests ways in which generative AI can be incorporated into each phase of genre‐based second language writing instruction. As technologies such as ChatGPT become established in language classrooms, it is clear that the writing process must share the stage with written products, both in instruction and assessments.

Investigating spoken classroom interactions in linguistically heterogeneous learning groups – An interdisciplinary approach to process video-based data in second language acquisition classrooms

Speaking the local language is central for successful integration into society. The teacher's language in second language (L2) classrooms serves as a crucial tool in language learning. Heterogeneity of learners’ language proficiency levels challenges teachers to adapt their language and accompanied instructional behavior. We offer an approach to study language acquisition processes and how teachers adapt their instructional language. This article presents our language-independent guidelines for processing video-based data of classroom interactions and demonstrate their reliability in a German as Second Language (GSL) classroom. These guidelines enable transcriptions of spoken language in noisy environments and detailed annotations of non-verbal classroom behavior. We outline research avenues at the intersection of empirical education research and linguistics that become feasible through these resources focusing on studying (non-)verbal adaptation strategies of teachers for learners at different proficiency levels. Our work directly fosters the interdisciplinary study of teacher-learner interactions, teacher competencies, and language acquisition.

Ground rules for talk – the use of conversation rules to increase productivity in mathematical conversations in the early years

ABSTRACT In recent years, social aspects of teaching and learning have gained increased recognition, prompting researchers to focus on conversations and language in mathematics classrooms. While prior studies have highlighted the importance of conversations in primary school teaching, a gap remains in understanding how they influence mathematics teaching and learning, especially among younger children (Muhonen et al. 2016; Patterson 2018). To address this gap, this study explores the implementation of ground rules for talk in two first-grade classrooms in Norway (ages 5–6 years). This educational design research study investigated the impact of conversation rules on enhancing mathematical reasoning and promoting productive communication in primary school. Findings indicate that implementing ground rules for talk can foster productivity by encouraging pupils to inquire about others’ reasoning and share their perspectives to foster a respectful discourse. However, it also emphasises the importance of teachers being mindful of their language to foster reasoning effectively.

Rethinking Teaching Culture in the Classroom: Teaching Culture Through Translation

This article provides an empirical study on rethinking teaching culture and its impact on learning language in second language (L2) teaching classroom. The study sample consists of twenty students majoring in English as participants, randomly selected from fourth year students, Department of English and Translation, AlQalam University, Yemen. The participants’ task was to choose the best translation for twenty English proverbs each. The translation test was constructed on Google.Sheets. The findings indicate that students’ performance has developed considerably through teaching them the culture of the proverbs involved. This was supported by a follow-up survey questionnaire, whose results consolidated the study findings that culture should be taught vis-à-vis language in L2 classroom.