Landscape Ecological Risk Assessment Research Articles

Evolution characteristics of landscape ecological risk patterns in Shangluo City in the Qinling Mountains, China

Landscape ecological risk assessment (LERA) is the basis of regional landscape pattern optimization, and a tool that can help achieve a win-win situation between regional development and ecological protection. The landscape ecological risk (LER) of the southern end of the Qinling Mountains, China exhibited an increasing trend after the year 2000, but the degree of increase and the spatial and temporal dynamics were not clear, limiting the formulation and implementation of landscape optimization measures in the area. Here, we constructed a landscape pattern risk index ERI by combining data on landscape disturbance and landscape vulnerability from land use information for Shangluo City for years 2000, 2005, 2010, 2015, and 2020; then, we calculated a LER level and its spatial and temporal dynamics for Shangluo City for years 2000 to 2020. Moran’s I and LISA indices were used to characterize the spatial correlation of ERI in Shangluo City. We found that Shangluo had a large proportion of medium-risk areas, and its LER shifted from medium-high, high in year 2000 to medium risk, medium-low and low risk in year 2020, and LER of Shangluo was clustered in space but the degree of clustering decreased in the past 20 years. We conclude that the development strategy of Shangluo should depend on providing a sustainably-developed environment.

Landscape Ecological Risk Assessment and Evaluation of Influencing Factors of Jinsha River Basin in Yunnan Province Based on Land Use/Cover Change

Landscape Ecological Risk Assessment and Evaluation of Influencing Factors of Jinsha River Basin in Yunnan Province Based on Land Use/Cover Change

Assessment of the Spatiotemporal Dynamics of Suitable Habitats for Typical Halophytic Vegetation in China Based on Maxent Model and Landscape Ecology Theory

The widespread and complex formation of saline soils in China significantly affects the sustainable development of regional ecosystems. Intense climate changes and regional land use further exacerbate the uncertainties faced by ecosystems in saline areas. Therefore, studying the distribution characteristics of typical halophytic vegetation under the influence of climate change and human activities, and exploring their potential distribution areas, is crucial for maintaining ecological security in saline regions. This study focuses on Tamarix chinensis, Tamarix austromongolica, and Tamarix leptostachya, integrating geographic information systems, remote sensing, species distribution models, and landscape ecological risk (LER) theories and technologies. An optimized MaxEnt model was established using the ENMeval package, incorporating 143, 173, and 213 distribution records and 13 selected environmental variables to simulate the potential suitable habitats of these three Tamarix species. A quantitative assessment of the spatial characteristics and the area of their potential geographical distribution was conducted. Additionally, a landscape ecological risk assessment (LERA) of the highly suitable habitats of these three Tamarix species was performed using land use data from 1980 to 2020, and the results of the LERA were quantified using the Landscape Risk Index (LERI). The results showed that the suitable areas of Tamarix chinensis, Tamarix austromongolica, and Tamarix leptostachya were 9.09 × 105 km2, 6.03 × 105 km2, and 5.20 × 105 km2, respectively, and that the highly suitable habitats for the three species were concentrated in flat areas such as plains and basins. Tamarix austromongolica faced increasing ecological risk in 27.22% of its highly suitable habitat, concentrated in the northern region, followed by Tamarix chinensis in 16.70% of its area with increasing ecological risk, concentrated in the western and northern highly suitable habitats; Tamarix chinensis was the least affected, with an increase in ecological risk in only 1.38% of its area. This study provides valuable insights for the protection of halophytic vegetation, represented by Tamarix, in the context of China’s national land development.

Landscape ecological risk assessment and driving factor analysis in southwest china.

Landscape ecological risk assessment and ecological network construction are of great significance for optimizing territorial functions and reducing regional ecological risks. Based on the production-living-ecological space perspective, this study evaluated the spatiotemporal differentiation characteristics of landscape ecological risk and its driving mechanism in Southwest China and constructed a landscape ecological network. The results showed that the proportions of ecological space, production space and living space to the total space in 2020 were 74.35%, 24.55% and 1.10%, respectively. The industrial production space had the highest growth rate, increasing by 9.8 times from 2000 to 2020. During the study period, the average value of the ecological risk index ranged from 0.2 to 0.21 for the whole landscape. The geographical distribution of ecological risk zones showed significant differences, with risk zones showing a transition from high-risk and low-risk to medium-risk zones. A total of 105 ecological corridors and 156 ecological nodes have been constructed in the 2020 ecological network. The northeastern part of the study area needs better landscape connectivity and should be focused on ecological protection. Random Forest (RF) and Geodetector modeling showed that anthropogenic disturbance and land use levels have strong explanatory power for the evolution of ecological risk in the landscape. The interactions between anthropogenic disturbance, natural climate and regional economy are essential factors in the spatiotemporal differentiation of ecological risk. This study provides scientific references for ecological risk research and the promotion of high-quality development in Southwest China.

Construction of landscape ecological network based on MCR risk assessment Model: A case study of Liaoning Province, China

Numerous disorderly expansions of impervious surfaces have resulted from the ongoing urbanization process, eroding the ecological security pattern and exacerbating ecological risks, subsequently leading to a progressive deterioration in its integrity. The tension between the expansion of ecological space and urban spatial expansion is becoming increasingly acute. Exploring the connection between ecological risks in urban landscapes is important for effectively managing regional ecological risks and optimizing patterns of regional ecological security. However, previous studies focus on selecting ecological sources in an ecological network and ignore how ecological resilience is impacted by factors such as species diversity, ecological structure complexity, etc. Based on remote sensing images of Liaoning Province in 2000, 2010, and 2020, the study used the landscape core index as the main indicator of ecological risk assessment, constructed a landscape ecological risk assessment model, and analyzed the spatiotemporal evolution of landscape ecological risk over the past 20 years. The impact of landscape ecological risk on ecological resistance was further explored, and the landscape ecological risk results in 2020 were used as one of the resistance factors to construct a multi-indicator comprehensive resistance surface. After identifying important ecological sources, an ecological network based on the minimum cumulative resistance model (MCR) was constructed, the optimal path connecting important ecological source areas was determined, and the distribution pattern characteristics of the internal ecological network in Liaoning Province were revealed. The findings indicate a general shift in ecological risks from high to low, following a distribution pattern of “high in the east and low in the west”. Additionally, the study identified 8 ecological sources and established 28 ecological corridors, spanning a total length of roughly 8160 km. This study aims to furnish a scientific foundation for developing an ecological security pattern network and optimizing the landscape pattern within Liaoning Province.

Construction of ecological security pattern of arid area based on landscape ecological risk assessment: a case study of the Wu-Chang-Shi urban agglomeration.

The construction of ecological security pattern (ESP) holds paramount importance in ensuring regional environment sustainability. This study introduces an innovative approach to ESP construction grounded in landscape ecological risk (LER) assessment, with Wu-Chang-Shi urban agglomeration in Xinjiang, China, serving as a case study. Initially, LER within the area was evaluated using the LER Index (LERI) method. Subsequently, the Geodetector model was employed to discern the relationship between multi-source data and LER. Furthermore, ecological resistance and corridors were delineated utilizing the minimum cumulative resistance (MCR) model. Lastly, the corridors were optimized using the gravity model, finalizing the ESP construction. Study results reveal that LER was always fluctuating from 1990 to 2010, and tended to stabilize from 2010 to 2020. Factor detection underscores the predominant influence of land use on LER, followed by elevation and vegetation distribution. The ESP shows the imperative for improving connectivity of the natural areas that are fragmented by urban land, highlighting the great significance of the woodland-originating corridors. Finally, strategies are proposed to enhance woodland and water coverage, boost landscape diversity in nature reserves, and prioritize ecological conservation in corridor regions. In summation, the study furnishes a framework for analyzing arid regions in Eurasia. Furthermore, the research idea of evaluation-analysis-remodeling also offers insights into environmental management in developing areas with more diverse climate types.

Landscape Ecological Risk and Drivers of Land-Use Transition under the Perspective of Differences in Topographic Gradient

Human activities have caused different degrees of land-use change on different topographic gradients, with impacts on the landscape and ecosystem. Effectively preventing and addressing ecological risk (ER) and achieving harmonious coexistence between humans and nature are important aspects of sustainable development. In this study, we used Gansu Province as an example, adopted five periods of land-use data in 1980, 1990, 2000, 2010 and 2020, and used the geoinformatic Tupu method and the terrain distribution index to study land-use changes under different topographic gradients, and then constructed the landscape ecological risk assessment (LERA) model based on the landscape pattern index to analyze landscape ecological risk (LER) spatiotemporal changes under different topographic gradients, and finally explored the LER driving factors using the geodetector model. The results showed that (1) the dominant land-use types were unused land and grassland, accounting for approximately 74% of the land. The situation of transferring and changing each type was more drastic. The distribution and changes in cropland and built-up land were easily found in low topographic gradient areas with low elevations and small slopes; the distribution and changes in woodland, grassland and water areas were easily found in high topographic gradient areas with high elevations and large slopes. (2) The landscape ecological risk index (LERI) was 0.018, 0.019, 0.019, 0.019 and 0.020, respectively, with spatial expressions of high in the northwest and low in the southeast. Low LER was concentrated in high topographic gradient ecological reserves; high LER was concentrated in low topographic gradient human interference areas and high topographic gradient natural environmental complex areas. (3) Natural factors mainly acted on the LER on moderate and high topographic position gradients; socioeconomic factors mainly acted on the LER on low topographic position gradients. Human interference interacted with natural factors more than human interference alone on LER. This study can provide a scientific basis for ensuring ecological security and sustainable development in areas with complex topography and geomorphology.

Construction of landscape eco-geological risk assessment framework in coal mining area using multi-source remote sensing data

High-intensity and large-scale mining activities have aggravated regional eco-geological risk. Therefore, it is significantly essential to conduct an assessment of the eco-geological risk of mining areas. Although some progress has been achieved in ecological risk assessment studies, existing approaches are not entirely suitable for coal bases with high landscape fragmentation and dense coal mining activities. Here, we developed a novel landscape ecological and geological risk (LEGR) assessment framework based on theories that include landscape ecological risk and eco-geological risk. The framework selected 10 indicators, including slope, fluctuation, lithological hardness, soil type, FVC, RSEI, precipitation, biological abundance, distance to road and subsidence rate, and calculated the weights of indicators by introducing the AHP-CRITIC coupled weighting model. Then, the impact of landscape disturbances on eco-geological risk is quantified by measuring landscape losses. This framework was applied to the Shenfu mining area (SFMA), a typical coal base in northwest China. The results indicated the LEGR was moderate in the SFMA whose spatial distribution exhibited an increasing trend from southwest to northeast. Besides, the high LEGR was mainly in the aggregated mining area with high subsidence. For the eco-geological environment monitoring at the mine scale, a multiscale geographically weighted regression (MGWR) model was utilized for analyzing the relationship between indicators and LEGR within the disturbed range of coal mining. It provided valuable insights for the formulation of environmental protection policies in the mining area.

From isolation to linkage: Holistic insights into ecological risk induced by land use change

While landscape ecological risk assessment (LERA) has the potential to positively impact environmental concerns by informing land use policies, a holistic perspective has yet to be adopted in previous investigations of LERA in relation to land use change. To address this gap, our study introduces a novel research framework that applies landscape ecology principles and methodologies, utilizing the concept of ‘landscape’ as a bridge connecting ecological risk and land use change. Building on relevant literature, we propose three hypotheses regarding the systemic nature of ecological risks. We then elucidate the principles, logic, and methods of LERA and employ high-precision land-use data and landscape pattern metrics to evaluate ecological risks resulting from land-use changes in Xiapu County between 2009 and 2013. Our ecological risk and land use overlay analysis validates three assumptions regarding the systematic character of ecological risks: (1) ecological risks in a local area are influenced by more than just land use changes within its spatial boundaries, (2) similar land use shifts can have varying impacts on ecological risk over time, and (3) ecological risk change cannot be solely attributed to the change in land use type. Finally, based on our enhanced understanding of ecological risks, we propose policy recommendations for land use planning and development at both global and local spatial scales. Our study provides a comprehensive understanding of ecological risks and their relationships with land use change, offering valuable insights for policymakers and researchers.

Landscape ecological risk assessment and its driving factors in the Weihe River basin, China

Landscape ecological risk assessment and its driving factors in the Weihe River basin, China

Integrating ecosystem service value in the disclosure of landscape ecological risk changes: a case study in Yangtze River Economic Belt, China

Urban expansion and inappropriate land uses have caused a decline in the regional ecosystem services capacity, which is contrary to United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 15 aiming to protect and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems. Landscape ecological risk (LER) visually depicts the disturbances to ecosystem services and environmental shifts resulting from human activities. Consideration of ecosystem services in LER assessment has not been sufficiently researched. Here, we employed ecosystem service values (ESV) to define landscape vulnerability, and adopted an enhanced risk assessment framework, amalgamating landscape patterns and ecosystem processes, to evaluate the spatial-temporal shifts in ESV and LER in the Yangtze River Economic Belt (YREB) from 2000 to 2020. We attempted to analyze the relationship between LER and anthropogenic disturbances. The results showed that over the past 20 years, the general trend revealed a diminishing high-risk area, while medium and low-risk regions expanded. Notably, the urban agglomeration of the YREB experienced a marked surge in risk. Regarding migration direction, the low-risk category has expanded in the east–west direction, while the medium and high-risk categories have shown inward contraction mainly in the north–south direction. The findings highlight the complex changes between ecological processes and LER under anthropogenic disturbances, and can serve as a guide for sustainable risk management and the development of ecological security patterns.

Landscape Ecological Risk Assessment of Saihanba under the Change in Forest Landscape Pattern

Examining the Saihanba Mechanical Forest Farm, this study utilized Landsat remote sensing data from 1987, 1997, 2001, 2013, and 2020 to interpret land use from the Support Vector Machine (SVM) method, and to decipher evolving land use patterns over the last four decades. Grounded in landscape ecology theory, an innovative evaluation index for landscape ecological risk was introduced, leading to the delineation of 382 ecological risk evaluation units. Employing landscape pattern indices and a method of spatial autocorrelation, we analyzed the spatial and temporal distribution characteristics and spatial correlation patterns of landscape ecological risk across five distinct periods. Geostatistical approaches were used to explore the driving factors of landscape risk. The results indicate that since 1987, there have been significant changes in land use types, especially in forest landscapes, their proportion increasing from 23.19% to 74.55%. In 1987, the proportion of high-risk areas was 72.30%, but in 2020, high-risk areas had significantly decreased and clustered in specific locations. The landscape ecological risks in each period of the study area showed a positive spatial correlation and tended to gather in space. After comprehensive exploration using a geographic detector, we found that landscape type, temperature, and vegetation coverage are the main risk factors. Among them, landscape type has the greatest impact on the landscape and works together with slope, aspect, and precipitation. In forest farm management, only the adaptation and adjustment of single factors are often paid attention to, while the compound effects of multiple factors are ignored. The results of this study bring important reference value to the operation and development of forest farms.

Landscape Analysis and Ecological Risk Assessment during 1995–2020 Based on Land Utilization/Land Coverage (LULC) and Random Forest: A Case Study of the Fushun Open-Pit Coal Area in Liaoning, China

China’s Fushun open-pit mine is the largest century-old coal mine in Asia. Large-scale mining and the use of coal has caused dramatic changes in the regional urban landscape pattern, seriously affecting the ecological function and ecosystem stability of its surrounding landscape. Evaluating the ecological risks of the landscape in the urban areas of open-pit mines contributes to the risk management of regional ecosystems and the sustainable development of society. This study selected six-phase Landsat ETM/OLI remote sensing images from 1995 to 2020 and combined them with the random forest model to carry out an LULC classification of the open-pit mine and its surrounding areas and, on this basis, discusses the evolution of its landscape pattern and evaluates the ecological risks. It fills the gap in the research on the evolution of regional landscape patterns and ecological risks in the study area and improves the automatic classification efficiency of LULC for use in open-pit mines. The results show that the classification accuracy of LULC regarding open-pit mines based on image pixels and the random forest model can reach 30 m, and the rate of accuracy can reach 92–97%. From 1995 to 2020, the coverage area of forest land and building land in the study area has increased and is mainly composed of grassland and undeveloped land. The use of land was transferred to the mining area, the water body area maintained a relative dynamic balance, and the overall vegetation coverage of the mining area was greatly improved; the forest land began to expand from the surrounding area to the mining area in 2010, and the construction land began to move from the areas surrounding the mining area to the surrounding valleys in 2015. The landforms have extended radially, and the landscape sprawl index has increased, indicating the optimization of the ecological environment; the high- and medium-risk areas decreased by 75.51 km2, the low-risk areas expanded by 461.48 km2, and the overall ecological risk index decreased. From this, it is possible to conclude that the landscape restoration project adopted in the study area has achieved great results, and the improvement of the ecological environment also directly affects the increase of construction land. These research results can provide scientific guidance for the rational utilization and sustainable development of land resources in urban areas of open-pit mines.

Landscape pattern changes and ecological risk assessment of major bays in the Philippines

The ecological environment in bay regions is relatively fragile, and the bay regions of Southeast Asia are typical areas of global population growth. Therefore, it is necessary to conduct comparative research on ecological risk assessment in such areas. Five major bays in the Philippines were selected to study the changes in landscape patterns and conduct ecological risk assessments. Land cover information for the five bays in 1990 and 2020 was extracted, and landscape pattern indices were analyzed. Then, the temporal and spatial variations in landscape ecological risk in each bay and the differences from 1990 to 2020 were assessed. The results showed that forestland and farmland are usually associated with stabilization and aggregation, and construction land is expanding, accompanied by the reduction and fragmentation of grasslands and wetlands. There were many medium- and high-risk areas in the Lingayen Gulf, Manila Bay and Bay of San Miguel, which mainly showed changes in wetland, grassland and bare land. The stability of the ecosystem in Macajalar Bay and Davao Gulf is due to the landscape type being mainly forestland. The largest changes across the bays were in grasslands and wetlands, both of which showed varying degrees of elevated fragmentation and separation. Therefore, the development of these bay regions should focus on ecological land such as wetlands and grasslands and treat bare land as the main type of land use while guiding construction land to expand inland and reducing ecological risks along the coast of the bay. This study provides a scientific basis to support the optimization of bay landscape patterns and improve ecologically sustainable development.

Prediction of ecological security network in Northeast China based on landscape ecological risk

The expansion of human activities has significantly increased ecological risks, which threaten the security of ecosystems. This paper takes Northeast China, a national typical ecological barrier region, as a case study to explore the evolution of the ecological environment under various future development scenarios. Considering the complexity of ecological assessments, a comprehensive approach integrating various methods is employed. This includes the Patch-based Land Use Simulation (PLUS) model, Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Trade-offs (InVEST) model, a landscape ecological risk assessment index system, the Space Minimum Cumulative Resistance (MCR) model, among others. These methods are used to dynamically assess changes in land use, landscape ecological risk (LER), and the layout of ecological networks. An integrated framework is proposed for identifying, constructing, and optimizing the ecological security network (ESN). The results show that the LER in Northeast China presents a “high in the middle, low around” distribution characteristic. High risk areas are mainly distributed in water bodies and construction lands with high landscape fragmentation and isolation, while low risk areas are primarily in the Northeast forest belt and Inner Mongolia grassland areas with lower landscape vulnerability and separation. From 2000 to 2020, the LER in the Northeast China has increased, primarily manifested in the Greater and Lesser Khingan Range areas in the northern part of the study region. Forecast results indicate significant differences in the evolution of LERs and the layout of the ESN under different socio-economic development scenarios. Under the ecological protection (EP) scenario, the average LER in Northeast China is 0.2215. The area of ecological source lands is 302,405.56 km2, the length of ecological corridors is 179,024.71 km, with 339 ecological nodes and 410 ecological breakpoints identified. Compared with the natural development (ND) and urban construction (UC) scenarios, the EP scenario in Northeast China shows the lowest LER and the most ideal layout of the ESN. This study provides a reference for future land resource optimization and ecological restoration in Northeast China.

Study on Spatial and Temporal Changes in Landscape Ecological Risks and Indicator Weights: A Case Study of the Bailong River Basin

The land use and ecological environment of the Bailong River Basin (BRB) have undergone significant changes in the context of developing urban–rural integration and ecological conservation in western China. As a key ecologically fragile area in the west region, a landscape ecological risk (LER) assessment can reflect the extent to which human activities and environmental changes threaten the ecosystems in the BRB. This study aims to explore the empowerment of indicator weights in an LER assessment. Landscape index weights and LER were analyzed based on land use data for three periods using objective and combined empowerment methods. It was found that the weighting results had apparent scale dependence, and the entropy weight method had the best results in indicator empowerment. From 2000–2020, the LER presented reduced risk, increased heterogeneity, and reduced aggregation. The shift from a medium-risk area to a lower-risk area was the primary transfer type of LER in the study area, and the LER showed a decreasing development trend. So far, research on weight empowerment in LER evaluations has been urgent. This study improved the landscape ecological risk assessment system by selecting an empowerment method that optimally takes into account scale dependence while providing valuable insights into the sustainability of the landscape in this watershed.

Pattern change and ecological risk analysis of Shilin World Geopark landscape

This study considered Shilin World Geopark as the research object and constructed a landscape ecological risk assessment model based on the landscape pattern index by using remote sensing image data during five periods between 2000 and 2020. In addition, it analyzed the spatial and temporal changes of landscape ecological risk in the region. Spatial autocorrelation analysis was utilized to study spatial differences in the landscape ecological risk in the park. The results showed that during the study period, (1) cultivated land, forest land, and rocky desertification land were the main landscape types, different landscape types differed, and the area of rocky desertification land and building land increased by 37.47 km2 and 14.29 km2, respectively, while the area of cultivated land and grassland decreased significantly, with changes of 34.11 km2 and 18.67 km2; (2) landscape ecological risk of the park showed significant spatial differences, the ‘high–high’ risk areas have been concentrated mainly in the central and northern parts of the park, the ‘low–low’ risk areas have been concentrated in the central part and the southwest-southeast area of the park; and (3) landscape ecological risk of the geopark has been increasing, with the degree of landscape ecological risk being spatially positively correlated. The results of the study are of great significance for maintaining ecosystem health of the Shilin World Geopark and optimizing the ecological risk management of the park.

Landscape ecological risk assessment across different terrain gradients in the Yellow River Basin

The Yellow River Basin is an important ecological barrier zone in China, and the landscape pattern has changed greatly due to intense human activities. It is of great significance to explore the dynamic forecasting of ecological risk based on terrain gradient for the ecological security of the Yellow River Basin. In this study, the distribution characteristics of ecological risk from 2000 to 2040 are evaluated by CA-Markov and ERI models. We put forward a new method of landscape ecological risk assessment based on terrain gradient and further analyzed the relationship between ecological risk and terrain index. The results showed that the proportion of the cultivated land and the grassland in the Yellow River basin is more than 73%, with the largest dynamic change in 2020. The ecological risk in the study area showed a spatial pattern of “high in the northwest and southwest, low in the east and south-central.” During the study period, the overall ecological risk showed a decreasing trend, and the high risk was reduced by four times. The future ecological risk of all terrain gradient will show a decreasing trend, the high risks mainly occurred in areas with “flat terrain with low terrain gradient and low vegetation coverage.” This study will provide a new perspective for the dynamic forecasting of ecological risk and the analysis of the change of ecological risk through terrain gradients.

Rethinking landscape ecological risk assessment and its applicability: Counterintuitive findings from coastal areas

AbstractLandscape ecological risk assessment (LERA) serves as a crucial tool for guiding effective environmental management. However, the conventional approach of LERA suffers from two notable drawbacks: the utilization of low‐resolution land‐use data (e.g., 30 × 30 m) and the application of arbitrary evaluation units (e.g., uniformly‐sized grids), both of which introduce uncertainty and inaccuracies into the assessment outcomes. Moreover, the extent to which the traditional LERA accurately reflects the true ecological risk level remains unexplored. To address these limitations, this study presents a modified LERA conducted in Xiapu, a coastal county in China, spanning the years 2013–2015. Fine‐grained land‐use data were employed to overcome the shortcomings of low‐resolution data. Additionally, spatial correlations between land‐use changes and ecological risk alterations were analyzed to unravel the mechanisms behind land‐use changes' impact on ecological risk, while also testing the accuracy of LERA results. Major findings can be summarized as follows: (1) Ecological risk changes in Xiapu during 2013–2015 were relatively minor, with high‐risk areas predominantly concentrated along the coast. (2) A total of 1137 ha of land in Xiapu County experienced changes, with construction land witnessing the most substantial increase. (3) Counterintuitive and unreasonable LERA outcomes were identified, particularly pertaining to illogical ecological risk changes arising from transformations between construction and non‐construction land. (4) Based on the counterintuitive findings, potential factors affecting the limitations and applicability of LERA were discussed. This study represents the first critical examination of the limitations of LERA, offering valuable insights to stimulate future researchers to rethink LERA and emphasize the importance of validating assessment outcomes during its application.

1990~2020年赤峰市土地利用变化及景观生态风险评价

1990~2020年赤峰市土地利用变化及景观生态风险评价