Russian Land Research Articles

Sinful Servant of God: Orthodox Theologian and Spiritual Writer Nikolay Yevgrafovich Pestov

The article tells about one of the brightest religious exponents of Russian thought, “the Ascetic of the Russian Land”, the Orthodox Christian Nikolay Pestov (1892–1982). The integrity of his Christian worldview arouses a genuine interest in him. The theological works by Nikolay Pestov should be undoubtedly considered in inextricable connection with the study of his life journey. Therefore, special attention is paid to the biography of the thinker based on documentary sources and autobiography. The article observes Nikolay Pestov’s spiritual rebirth, his transformation from the external to the internal, “...from Saul to Paul...”. This approach allows to appreciate the significance of his own experience of Orthodox piety and to see the true value of his gift of writing. Focusing on modern readers, who might encounter difficulties in perception and understanding of literary forms typical for the fourth century, Nikolay Pestov managed to “write without saying anything new, but saying everything as if in a new way instead”. All this becomes possible thanks to the amazing bread th in quoting the “source of eternal truth — the Holy Scriptures”, the works by ascetics of piety of the late 19th–20th centuries, writers, philosophers, teachers, poets, as well as examples from the lives of saints. It is quite difficult to find an equally proper niche for Pestov’s guide in religious literature, since spiritual books were created primarily by monastics describing their own experience. Being a layman himself, Nikolay Pestov wrote a book for lay people, for those who are ready to perform a Christian feat in their family, in education, in friendship, at work, during the day, in conversations and in silence. Nikolay Pestov’s two-volume book shows the way to Christ. It would be a mistake to think that Nikolay Pestov only indicates “the way of salvation” for his readers. He himself is a wanderer, a fellow traveler, a companion on the way. He himself continues his spiritual ascent. The theologian called his series of books “a thesis research” on the topic “Experience of Building a Christian Worldview”. Today this work is called The Modern Practice of Orthodox Piety. The author Nikolay Pestov signed his works with ГБР (GBR) abbreviation meaning the Sinful Servant of God in Russian. The article attempts to show the eternity of Christian wisdom by repeated address to theological works by Nikolay Pestov.

The pragmatics of sharing memes on Twitter

This paper explores the interactional pragmatic characteristics of multimodal memetic content facilitated by Twitter affordances, notably the functions of retweeting and quote tweeting. These Twitter affordances enable reposting a previous multimodal tweet (with or without a preceding commentary), which is conducive to nested memetic posts involving entextualised multimodal quotations and/or to memes interwoven into conversational exchanges. These retweeting practices also promote different forms of recontextualisation and user engagement with the original multimodal post, ranging from content co-construction (dubbed “pragmatic entrenchment”) to repurposing (referred to as “repragmatisation”). The theoretical proposals concerning Twitter memes are illustrated with examples taken from a manually compiled dataset of 893 (quote) tweeted memes collected between 25th and 30th November 2022 and originating from two viral memes that satirically announce the formation of NAFO's New Fella Land and Královec on Russian lands in response to Russia's illegitimate annexation of Ukrainian territories based on sham referenda held in late September 2022. These two memetic constructs are shown to have inspired pragmatic entrenchment (involving joint fantasising among other things), as well as repragmatisation through quote tweets which query or question the parent memes or their spin-offs and apply them for new communicative purposes.

Request for Paternalism: The Concept and Value of State in the Minds of Russian Youth

Modern Russian youth as a whole significantly differs from those of older generations in their values and behavioral disposition, which, in conjunction with internal heterogeneity, has a significant impact on the strategy of working with it. In connection therewith, the purpose of the research presented was the value and semantic analysis of one of the meaning-forming concepts of the person’s political representations system - the concept of the state on the basis of the political and psychological approach. The results of an all-Russian representative survey of young people aged 14-30 conducted during the autumn, 2022 served as an empirical basis for the study (sample size: 2,500). A research question was posed: what are the meanings of the idea and value of the state in the minds of modern youth? As hypotheses, the assumptions were formulated that the modern Russian youth is characterized by paternalistic orientations traditionally characteristic of the national political culture. At the same time, ideas about the state are contradictory, reflect traditional, historically established axiological interpretations and modern meanings. The overall result of the study was the conclusion about the ambivalent and unclear nature of ideas about the Russian state, with positive characteristics dominating. The attitude of young people to the state is utilitarian in nature: it is perceived as a source of benefits, responsible to citizens, they are expected to take care, protect and ensure order. At the same time, young people often do not endow themselves with responsibility to the state and society. In the minds of young people, the state is associated with such concepts as land, people and culture. At the same time, the “Russian land” is not simply perceived as a territory, but as an independent value in the context of identifying an individual with people and its culture. This interpretation has deep historical value and semantic roots. It can be judged as a modern actualization of the notions of «Russian Land» and «Russian State» noted by historians in the Russian political culture.

Краткая редакция «Чтения о Борисе и Глебе» Нестора и 6-я Распространенная редакция Обычного жития Владимира в Торжественнике XV в.

<p>Article deals with the texts devoted to the first Russian saints princes-martyrs Boris and Gleb and Vladimir the Baptizer, their father. Abridged version of the «Narration of Boris and Gleb» by Nestor and the 6<sup>th</sup> version of St. Vladimir’s Ordinary Vita, known only in the Panegyrikons of the 16<sup>th</sup> century before, were found in the Panegyrikon Tikhonravovsky 185 written in the West Russian lands in the 1470s. Both texts were edited for the protograph of Tikhonravovsky 185 and then used in the Panegyrikons of the Central Russian and West Russian origin, testifying the confluence of traditions.</p>

Identification of captured soldiers of the tsarist army based on nationality in Austria-Hungary, 1915: separation of Ukrainians

The article summarizes the process of identifying and separating Ukrainians from tsarist army soldiers who were captured by the Austrian-Hungarian forces. In 1915, such efforts were initiated by members of the Union for the Liberation of Ukraine (ULU) who surveyed camp inmates and compiled a list of prisoners willing to move to a Ukrainian camp in Freistadt. The procedure was complex because many inmates supported the imperial ideology, including the Black Hundreds and Little Russians who exerted psychological pressure on the prisoners and attempted to prevent communication between the Ukrainians and the ULU envoys. The compiled lists of Ukrainian nationals laid long-lasting foundations for the ULU’s efforts to unite Ukrainians and establish a community of Ukrainian activists, albeit a small one, who were willing to risk their lives and carry out the difficult task of spreading national liberation ideas not only in POW camps, but also on Ukrainian lands in Russia. Owing to the ULU’s efforts, Ukrainian prisoners were transferred to the camp in Freistadt which was the center of Ukrainian life in 1915–1918.

No Great Russia without Greater Russia

This paper argues that to understand the invasion of Ukraine, we need to have better insights into the Kremlin’s particular world view and Russia’s place within it. This view is based on a sense of entitlement to great power status, going hand in hand with an identity of itself as a country that extends beyond the actual borders of the Russian Federation. What makes the position unique is that the geopolitical and identity arguments are inseparable: in the Kremlin’s world view, Russia can only be a great power if it also exists as greater Russia. This structural factor is labelled the geopolitics-identity nexus. To explain why the invasion happened in 2022, three additional process factors are outlined: a radicalisation of the view of Ukraine as Russian lands, driven by the feeling of existential crisis when tensions over Ukraine escalated in 2014; an escalation of policy options resulting from consecutive failures in Russia’s Ukraine policy; and a reversal of the argument that Russia has to be a great power to exist within its 1991 borders into an argument that Russia has to expand its territory to be a great power.

Генезис образа ратного поля в поэтической баталистике периода Отечественной войны 1812 года

The aim of the research is to identify the literary genesis, semantic components, and artistic potential of the image of the battlefield in the poetic batalistics of 1812. The article explores the architectonics of the battlefield space and the symbolic content of the battle image, based on works from the “Collection of Poems Relating to the Unforgettable Year of 1812”, in comparison with folklore traditions and ancient Russian military tales. The research’s scientific novelty lies in clarifying the genesis of spatial topoi in the verbal batalistics of the Patriotic War of 1812, determining the mechanisms of transforming vivid images of military events into powerful artistic images, and expanding our understanding of visual poetics in the Russian literature of the early 19th century. The study reveals that within the context of battles, the field topos is realized in several meanings. It is not only a designation of the battlefield but also a generalized image of the entire Russian land, embodying the national character. It is found that alongside the vivid imagery inherited from ancient Russian military storytelling, the poets of 1812 infused the battle texts with romantic and realistic tendencies in the depiction of space. This is reflected in their praises of the military accomplishments of ordinary individuals on the battlefield, the gallantry of hussars, friendly sentiments, and portrayals of soldier life. This allows readers to visually perceive historical events and be engaged with the literary patriotic tradition.

IVAN FRANKO’S POEM “TSAR’S WORDS” IN THE CONTEXT OF THE WRITER’S ANTI-IMPERIAL DISCOURSE

The paper analyzes Ivan Franko’s poem “Tsar’s words” in the context of the anti-imperial discourse presented in the writer’s journalism and poetry. It also uncovers allusions and reminiscences of the poetic texts by T. Shevchenko and P. Kulish within the poetic framework of Franko’s work. Additionally, the study directs attention towards the facts of Franko’s life during the Russian occupation of Lviv from 1914 to 1915, a period when this particular poem was written.
 In terms of content, the poem 'Tsar's Words' represents Franko's satirical reflection on the manifesto addressed by the supreme commander-in-chief of the Russian army, Nikolai Romanov, to Galician Muscophiles and the people of Galicia. The title-allusion “Tsar’s words” decodes the real political and historical meaning of this monarchical message, essentially revealing the aggressive and conquering plan of Russia’s anti-Ukrainian project for Galicia. Under the pretext of “collecting Russian lands,” its true aim was to undermine the core of Ukrainian life in the region. Therefore, the poetics of this piece is defined by the simultaneous presence of literary imagery and topical journalism. The poem contains genre features of political satire with elements of invective, political parody, and biting sarcasm. It is characterised by an angry denunciative pathos, the presence of an implicit addressee, a combination of high and vernacular vocabulary, hyperbolism, and polemicism.
 As a far-sighted political analyst with the foresight of a national prophet, Franko saw deeper historical processes and consequences in this war, interpreting it in the spectrum of a historically consistent, existential confrontation between the national aspiration of Ukrainians for their own statehood and centuries of Russian enslavement. The political sarcasm of the poem further develops into a prophetic vision and national warning by Franko against the bloody consequences of an uncertain peace with Muscovy, exposing the real essence of the colonialist policy of russification, savage conquest, and obscurantism.

Образ «дальневосточного фронтира» в лирике П. С. Комарова

The aim of the study is to identify the specifics of the spatial and geographical image of the Far East in P. S. Komarov’s poetry from the perspective of the “frontier” vision. The paper substantiates the productivity of using the “frontier spectrum” for the analysis of regional lyrical poetry and provides an overview of the leading works in this field. Main attention is paid to the identification and analysis of the forms of artistic representation of the image of the Far East in Komarov’s lyrical poetry. The paper is novel in that it is the first to consider the author’s poetic world from the perspective of “frontier imagery”, to substantiate the role of extra-textual (geographical and historical-cultural) realia for the formation of the image of the frontier. As a result of the study, it has been found that the image of the Far East as a frontier territory of Russia is created by means of landscape, ethnopoetics, mythopoetics, toponymy, spatial markers (“east – west”, distance, “top – bottom”, etc.). The paper argues that the “frontier image” in Komarov’s lyrical poetry has a “double content”, combining the poetic vision of the region as a “Russian borderland” and at the same time as an inseparable part of the “Russian land”; it is shown that in relation to the image of the persona, “frontier characteristics” are associated with the theme of land development and border protection.

Security Problems in the Russian State after the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Partition and the Creation of the Kingdom of Poland (End of the 18th – First Half of the 19th Century)

In the article the author examines the problems of security protection in the Russian state analyzing the integration policy of the empire in the regions of Western Russia and Kingdom of Poland. He considers the issues of Poland partitions, “Russian lands collecting” policy of Catherine the Great and the appearance of Western Russia phenomenon. The author shows that the inconsistent policy of the reunion of Western Russian Uniats with the Orthodox church and preservation of serfdom, which re-established the relations of colonial exploitation, were the obstacles on the way of Western Russia integration with the Russian State. He focuses on the problems of the Kingdom of Poland creation which is characterized as “geopolitical error” of the diplomacy of Alexander I. To prove this the author examines the events of the 1830 uprising and the Russian-Polish war of 1831. The author concludes that preservation of the autonomous Kingdom of Poland within the empire became a threat for the security and territorial integrity of the Russian state. He considers the steps taken by the government of Nicolas I and the Russian Church to integrate Western Russia and the Kingdom of Poland into the empire. The scientifi c novelty of the research consists in the exposure of the security problems of the Russian state that arose after the partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the creation of the Kingdom of Poland. As the result the author reveals the principal causes for the appearance of the threats not only for the integrity and unity of the state, but also for the unity of the large Russian nation

Reconstruction of the South Ural Stage of the Punitive Campaign of Tamerlane's Troops Against the Golden Horde in 1391

Relevance. The enormous scientific significance of this topic is due to Russia's belonging to the world of Eurasian civilizations, whose role has been belittled against the background of historical events in Europe. Meanwhile, large-scale processes took place in the Southern Urals in the XIV century, about which there is too little information not only in the educational literature, but also in specialized publications. These include the campaign of the Timurid troops against the Golden Horde in 1391 and its culmination – the Battle of Kondurcha. It was these events that laid the prerequisites for the final collapse of the Jochi Ulus, which in turn accelerated the process of liberating Russian lands from the Horde dependence. The key part of this military campaign is directly connected with the Southern Urals, but the main events of this stage of the campaign (first of all, a major vanguard battle in the west of Orenburg region) still remain unexplored.The purpose: to reconstruct the South Ural stage of the punitive campaign of Tamerlane's troops against the Golden Horde in 1391.Objectives: to make a periodization of the campaign; to determine the affiliation of the hydronyms "Samur" and "Iik" to determine the key points of the campaign; to calculate the average possible speed of movement of Tamerlane's army to identify the possible length of the route of his troops; to find out the approximate localization of the vanguard battle of the opposing sides; to calculate the approximate size of Tamerlane's army.Methodology. The work used a set of general scientific and special methods and principles: the principle of objectivity, the analysis of topographic elements of the terrain, historicism, historical-comparative, chronological, historical analogies and other methods.Results. It was established that the main events of the investigated campaign took place on the territory of the modern Orenburg region, and not Bashkortostan, as indicated in a number of studies. A periodization of the campaign has been compiled, within which two stages of the South Ural stage of this military campaign have been identified. Thanks to the determination of the average speed of movement of troops, it was possible to interpret such hydronyms as "Samur" and "Iik" and establish the approximate location of a major vanguard battle of the opposing armies. With the help of a set of methods, the approximate number of Tamerlane's army was determined.Conclusion. The total length of the South Ural route of the punitive campaign of the Timurid troops in 1391 to the Golden Horde is 700 km, overcome in 21 days. This means that the average speed of movement of troops did not exceed 33 km, which fully fits into the calculations we have given and corresponds to the real capabilities of medieval armies. The presented route is confirmed by archaeological sources, including a unique metal helmet found in the Orenburg region, in the paradise of the Kargalki river. The largest vanguard battle of the considered military campaign took place in the west of Orenburg, on the border of modern Asekeyevsky, Grachevsky, Matveevsky and Krasnogvardeysky districts. The number of troops involved in the campaign is in the range of 50-80 thousand.

Налоговая терминология краткого собрания ханских ярлыков, выданных русским митрополитам

Research objectives: This study aims to determine the nature of payments made to the Golden Horde, as documented in the texts of the Short Collection of Khan’s jarlyks issued to Rus’ Metropolitans. Research materials: The research draws from various sources, including charters prepared by the orders of the Golden Horde and Yuan Empire rulers, charters of a spiritual and contractual nature from Rus’ princes, as well as Rus’ chronicles. Results and novelty of the research: This study proposes characteristics of the tax items found in Khan’s jarlyks and uncovers potential insertions within the label texts. It is demonstrated that the extensive list of duties present in the Khan’s charters was not originally a part of these documents. Many tax terms were intentionally added to the texts of the jarlyks during their translation into Russian. Some of these terms represented the Horde taxes that were actually collected from Russian lands, while others denoted payments recognized in Rus’, but not directed to the benefit of the Golden Horde. Furthermore, certain terms appear to be artificial tax designations.

К вопросу об организации дипломатической службы в постордынских чингизидских государствах в XVI веке (Крымское и Казанское ханства): тети и бакшеи

Research objectives: This study investigates the development of the embassy service in the post-Horde states, with a specific focus on identifying its structure and analyzing its personnel composition. Research materials: The research primarily relies on the analysis of Russian embassy books and chronicles. Results and novelty of the research: The examination of Russian documents reveals that Khan’s embassies followed a three-part structure: Ambassador (elchi)-deputy (tet)-secretary (bakshi). The Russian chancellery was notably reluctant to use the term “tet,” likely because individuals with this title were responsible for collecting specific duties from Russian lands in favor of the Khan. It is possible that the Russian documents referred to the “tet” as a toll collector; in any case, we know that ambassadors could be accompanied by “toll collectors.” After 1475, these duties were abolished. In total, 7 mentions of Crimean tets and 6 Kazan tets were identified. References to baksheys in embassies are better preserved, with a total of 18 Crimean, 8 Kazan, 2 Nogai, and 1 Siberian bakshi identified. One of the primary responsibilities of baksheys was to compile a certificate. Thus, the observation of the embassy mission’s composition relies on source-based evidence. Even when there is no specific information about shoring, the mere presence of a bakshey serves as a reliable indicator that the outcome of the negotiations was expected to involve shoring. The study reveals that we can discuss the process of forming the diplomatic service in the post-Horde Chingisid states.

Formation Practices for the Russian People’s Ethno-Cultural Identity: from the Emergence of the Russian Tradition and Statehood to Modern Falsifications

The historical approach to the formation of the origin concept for the Old Russian state and the ethno-cultural history of the Russian people allows for fervent discussions. They can be resolved by a culturological approach and the understanding of the cultureforming role of Orthodoxy as a key factor in the formation, preservation and transmission of the folk tradition through many centuries. Since the very emergence of the Russian land, the Orthodox tradition has been preserving the continuous transmission of values, worldview, and attitudes to many phenomena of the cultural life of the Russian population. However, after Peter the Great, and even more after the Soviet period marked by controlled destruction and substitution of the tradition, one can talk about the crisis of the Russian identity and the search for the living tradition and its place in contemporary life. In modern Russia, three approaches to the replication of the folk tradition can be observed. The fi rst one is conditioned by the activity of cultural institutions and dates back to the Soviet period of the Russian tradition destruction and the formation of the new Soviet people’s identity. The second one is implemented through the activity of the youth folklore movement of “practicing folklorists” who are guided by the materials of folklorist and ethnographic research and fi eld data. The third one is represented by an alternative identity formed through the practices of neo-pagan associations and the activity of organizers of holidays, festivities, and seminars who share this worldview. The latter approach is characterized by the rejection of the Christian bases and content of folk festivals that have survived till present in the research data. Maslenitsa and Kupala have always been Christian holidays and have been perceived as such among those with a Christian worldview. However, representatives of the third approach deny this, going to obvious falsifi cations and forgeries. Their worldview leads not only to the distortion of the value bases of Russian ethno-cultural tradition, but also to an anti-state ideology.

Updating of the Archival Large-Scale Soil Map Based on the Multitemporal Spectral Characteristics of the Bare Soil Surface Landsat Scenes

For most of the arable land in Russia (132–137 million ha), the dominant and accurate soil information is stored in the form of map archives on paper without coordinate reference. The last traditional soil map(s) (TSM, TSMs) were created over 30 years ago. Traditional and/or archival soil map(s) (ASM, ASMs) are outdated in terms of storage formats, dates, and methods of production. The technology of constructing a multitemporal soil line (MSL) makes it possible to update ASMs and TSMs based on the processing of big remote-sensing data (RSD). To construct an MSL, the spectral characteristics of the bare soil surface (BSS) are used. The BSS on RSD is distinguished within the framework of the conceptual apparatus of the spectral neighborhood of the soil line. The filtering of big RSD is based on deep machine learning. In the course of the work, a vector georeferenced version of the ASM and an updated soil map were created based on the coefficient “C” of the MSL. The maps were verified based on field surveys (76 soil pits). The updated map is called the map of soil interpretation of the coefficient “C” (SIC “C”). The SIC “C” map has a more detailed legend compared to the ASM (7 sections/chapters instead of 5), greater accuracy (smaller errors of the first and second kind), and potential suitability for calculating soil organic matter/carbon (SOM/SOC) reserves (soil types/areals in the SIC “C” map are statistically significant are divided according to the thickness of the organomineral horizon and the content of SOM in the plowed layer). When updating, a systematic underestimation of the numbers of contours and areas of soils with manifestations of negative/degradation soil processes (slitization and erosion) on the TSM was established. In the process of updating, all three shortcomings of the ASMs/TSMs (archaic storage, dates, and methods of creation) were eliminated. The SIC “C” map is digital (thematic raster), modern, and created based on big data processing methods. For the first time, the actualization of the soil map was carried out based on the MSL characteristics (coefficient “C”).

Revising History and ‘Gathering the Russian Lands’: Vladimir Putin and Ukrainian Nationhood

Revising History and ‘Gathering the Russian Lands’: Vladimir Putin and Ukrainian Nationhood

Seniority in the Rurikid Dynasty: Socio-Cultural Ideas and Legitimacy

The article is devoted to the evolution of ideas about seniority in the Old Russian Rurikid dynasty. The article considers the continuity and succession of the supreme power and authority in the united Old Russian state, in the pre-Mongol feudal appanage period, in the era of the Horde dominion. The nature and significance of the capital role of Kiev in the pre-Mongolian period is analyzed. The progressive growth of the importance of the northeastern and southwestern Russian lands, the differences in the approaches of their rulers to the all-Russian unity are shown. At the end of the article the conclusion is made that, from the point of view of Russian dynastic patrimonial law, by the 15th century, the only legitimate all-Russian rulers remained only the Grand Princes of Moscow and Vladimir.

Growing the Forests on Agricultural Land in Russia: Legislative Novelties and Implementation Thereof

Introduction. For a long time the application of the extensive land and forest management at the abandoned agricultural land had no respective legislative framework, that would regulate forests growing. The proprietors, who were in despair due to the excessive fines imposed on them for not using the agricultural land, had been burning up the forests on their lands causing considerable damage to themselves, society, the state and nature. In Russia, the area of the abandoned agricultural land suitable for forestry is about 76 million hectares. In 2020 two extremely important regulatory legal documents concerning the forests located on the agricultural land not used in compliance with its intended purpose were adopted – the Russian Federation Government Decree No 1509 of September 21, 2020 (hereinafter – Decree No 1509) and the Russian Federation Government Decree No 1482. The business entities (including the proprietors and forest managers) interested in development of this sector have noted the positive dynamics in the legislation development because of the profound opportunities opened for forests multiplication –– there appeared the opportunities for forest farming and growing the forests on the abandoned agricultural land, setting-up the nursery forests, developing the rural territories, particularly in the Non-Black-Soil zone, all of these can benefit the Russian forests stock, preserve biodiversity and, not the least, improve the overall ecological and climate situation in the country and in the world. By the beginning of 2023, this sector of legal relationships has been significantly amended by the legislators, however it should be noted, that the legal regulation and settlement of many issues in this sector still remain difficult. The aim of the present research is to distinguish the problematic issues in development of the Russian Federation agroforestry legislation and implementation of the Russian Federation Government Decree No 1509 of September 21, 2020.Materials and Methods. In the article, the issue of growing the forests on agricultural land was analysed. The general scientific and specific scientific methods were used in the research. The methodology of the study was based on the dialectical method, as well as on the legalistic, comparative-legal, system-structural kinds of analysis.Results. It was revealed, that the formidable administrative and regulatory barriers have been set forth the agroforestry evolvement and this sector of the legislation development needs serious reassessment. Urgent steps must be taken to identify all the gaps and shortcomings and to rectify the situation.Discussion and Conclusions. The problems caused by adding the numerous amendments to the Decree № 1509, complicating the forests growing on agricultural land, have been revealed. The transit to the intensive management of forests and removal of bureaucratic barriers in development of the agroforestry are deemed necessary.

The Western Provinces of the Russian Empire in the Revolution of 1905-1907: Elements of Regional Uniqueness and Civil War

This article examines the elements of regional identity and civil war in nine western provinces of the Russian Empire during the Revolution of 1905-1907. Unlike the inner Russian provinces, the western provinces were multinational and polyconfessional, despite the fact that Russian nationalists considered them to be native Russian lands. On the territory of the western provinces, mass protest movements took place, combining ethnic, religious and social conflicts, often leading to outbreaks of terrorism. The lands that were part of the Commonwealth in the historical past were perceived as a kind of transit zone between Russia and the Kingdom of Poland (Vistula provinces), and their integration into the Russian Empire was not completed. Numerous revolutionary, anti-revolutionary and counter-revolutionary movements with the participation of many political parties and movements of various kinds had a strong influence on the socio-political development of nine provinces. Attempts by the central and local authorities to suppress conflicts by various methods and the scale of manifestations of violence were inherent in the outskirts of the Empire during the revolution, as a result of which features of originality appeared in the western provinces. In addition, historical parallels can be drawn with regional outbreaks of violence during the French Revolution. The author offers the opportunity to compare the western provinces as the "Black Hundred Vendee" of the period of the revolution of 19051907. on the types of conflicts and the level of violence with the south of France (Midi) of the French Revolution and compare the social, ethnic and religious conflicts of the western provinces of the period of the revolution of 1905-1907. with the events in the Austrian Empire during the revolutionary period of 1848-1849.

The vision of regional history in the Soviet textbooks of the socio-humanitarian block in 1920-1930

The article examines the peculiarities of forming the vision of regional history, which was presented in the textbooks of the socio-humanitarian block of the 1920s-1930s. The historiography of the issue is analyzed. Examining the vision of regional history in Soviet textbooks, the author touched on the problem of the Soviet school system functioning in general and the history lesson in particular. The main textbooks of the specified period, which are representative of the presented issues were also analyzed, because they concern secondary general schools, that is, those children who were the basis of the school education system. The article reveals the spatial vision presented in the work of M. Yavorsky "A Brief History of Ukraine" – the main textbook of that period. Among the regions distinguished by the Soviet information policy were: Ukraine as part of the USSR; Naddniprianshchyna with the main city Kyiv, Galicia, Volyn and Zakarpattya (Transcarpathia). Also, the peculiarity of the vision of regional history, which was formed at the beginning of the next decade, is revealed. It consisted in shifting the vector from the west to the eastern spaces – Russian lands. Kyiv as a regional center receded into the background, giving way to St. Petersburg and Moscow. The specified vision deepened even more at the end of the 1930s. Textbooks of that period almost did not describe Ukrainian lands, dividing them into two artificial regions, "Eastern and Western" Ukraine. Instead, the regional vision spread to Central Asia, Kazakhstan and the Caucasus.