Land-based Sectors Research Articles

An assessment of green economy in Central Java Province, Indonesia: conformity and transformation

This paper assesses the environmental performance of land-based economic sectors of Central Java, Indonesia. An assessment framework is designed and applied to two Districts: Banyumas and Purbalingga. It consists of two main elements, namely: (a) an assessment between the medium term development plans of the two districts in terms of their consistency with green economy ideas and (b) an assessment of the transformation phase (from research to the real green investment) that has been achieved by each district. Results show that development actors in the regions have a strong aspiration for 'welfare and justice' as the ultimate goal of development. However, their visions overlook one of the main objectives of the green economy, which is associated to the notion of 'environmental protection and climate stabilisation'. This assessment also suggests that research and advocacy have been limited which may prevent effective transformation towards a green economy in both districts. Finally, some forms of research and advocacy on green economy are proposed.

Carbon-equivalent metrics for albedo changes in land management contexts: relevance of the time dimension.

Surface albedo is an important physical property by which the land surface regulates climate. A wide and growing body of literature suggests that failing to account for surface albedo can result in suboptimal or even counterproductive climate-motivated policies of the land-based sectors. As such, albedo changes are increasingly included in climate impact assessments of forestry and other land sector projects through conversion of radiative forcings into carbon or carbon dioxide equivalents. However, the prevailing methodology does not sufficiently accommodate dynamic albedo changes on land or CO2 in the atmosphere. We present two new metrics designed to address these deficiencies, referring to them as the time-dependent emissions equivalent and the time-independent emissions equivalent of albedo changes. We demonstrate their application in various land management contexts and discuss their merits and uncertainties.

Green growth rhetoric versus reality: Insights from Indonesia

Abstract By 2030 Indonesia aims to reduce its CO2 emissions by 29% while maintaining a 7% annual GDP growth rate, thus making “green economy” a reality. Based on a review of literature and secondary data and interviews with key informants, this article examines the gap between these national ambitions and the reality on the ground, with particular attention to the challenges of multi-scalar environmental governance. It first introduces the green economy concept and discusses the main green growth policies and initiatives at the national level. The article then examines green growth ambitions at the provincial level in East Kalimantan province. Our findings suggest that existing plans to further expand oil palm plantations are at odds with provincial efforts to reduce emissions. This highlights a key paradox we identify at the heart of the green economy concept as it is developing in Indonesia: between a development trajectory based on resource extraction and agro-industrial development, and ‘green’ aspirations linked to environmental protection and greenhouse gas emissions reductions. We conclude that the main challenges to address these contradictions are related to the lack of coordination between different governance scales and a political economy that is not conducive to reforms in the land-based sector. There is a need to align investment, planning, and green growth policies, based on a strong political commitment and an awareness of social and environmental trade-offs. On a more general level the article shows that the green economy concept refers to a form of environmental governance in which authorities and interests may overlap and come into conflict at different scales. Hence, differing priorities may lead the material expression of the green economy to diverge significantly from policy as it is initially laid out.

Rethinking production systems: science for the land-based sector

By 2030, New Zealand agribusiness will have accepted that there are biological limits to meeting burgeoning demands for safe, affordable food production, while mitigating adverse environmental impacts. The nature of scientific research will have changed significantly from agronomic field trial observation to one of understanding aimed at fundamentally rethinking and improving resource use efficiency. Top scientists, focusing innovatively on the processes involved, will have moved from historic to future criteria for optimisation. They will also have used process-based models to highlight the few sustainable ways to alter plant, animal and soil function safely. A priori proof of concept will be a matter of course and there will have been major progress in identifying genes controlling the fine detail of the balance of growth and resource use. This future depends on applying the same criteria for evaluating proficiency, productivity and minimising unproductive costs and waste, throughout the science system itself.

Corporate reporting on solutions to wicked problems: Sustainable land management in the mining sector

Land degradation is a wicked problem for social–ecological systems, addressed through international policy by the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD). The UNCCD is striving towards land degradation neutrality – maintenance or improvement of the condition of the land – whereby degradation is prevented and reversed through sustainable land management (SLM) and restoration. Land degradation neutrality, and therefore SLM, is relevant to all land-based sectors. This paper focuses on the mining sector. It explores how mining companies and mining sector stakeholders conceptualize SLM; identifies the drivers of their engagement in SLM; examines how mining companies operationalize existing guidelines to report on SLM; and evaluates the implications of the ways in which companies report on SLM in terms of the UNCCD's efforts in moving towards land degradation neutrality. Our methodological approach includes semi-structured interviews with key mining and SLM stakeholders and content analysis of company sustainability reports. Findings identify a range of interpretations of SLM and suggest that companies are engaging in SLM largely due to the need to reduce their costs and risks. We find a variety of good and poor reporting practices. Differences in both SLM discourses and the quality of reporting have important implications in terms of stakeholders’ abilities to understand and evaluate corporate SLM performance, their engagement in the implementation of the UNCCD, and ultimately, the progress made towards land degradation neutrality. Our findings suggest that the currently dominant format of corporate sustainability reporting does not lend itself easily to context-specific, wicked problems such as SLM. Furthermore, there is a need for improved communication, data sharing and knowledge management between mining and other SLM stakeholders; a need to seek further synergistic opportunities for reporting; and that the context of reporting needs to be more clearly presented if reports are to be more useful and meaningful in outlining SLM.

Assessing policy robustness of climate change adaptation measures across sectors and scenarios

Recent research has increasingly focussed on whether long-term policies for adaptation to climate change are robust given uncertainties about future climate change, technological advances and alternative socio-economic development pathways. The aim of this study was to examine whether adaptation responses are ‘robust’, by looking at whether they reduce vulnerability to climate and socio-economic changes for a selection of ecosystem services across scenarios and two spatial scales: Europe (EU27 plus Norway and Switzerland) and a case study in Scotland. Outputs of the CLIMSAVE Integrated Assessment Platform (IAP) for multiple land-based sectors were used to test whether clusters of adaptation options referred to as policy archetypes reduced vulnerability to climate and socio-economic change for ecosystem service indicators related to biodiversity, flooding, water exploitation, land use diversity, land use intensity and food provision. The results show that the People-based Adaptation archetype is the most robust. This is because it reduces vulnerability by increasing coping capacity (people learn and build networks) and not only by reducing the impacts of climate and socio-economic change. By allowing comparative levels of vulnerability to be explored across sectors and scenarios, the CLIMSAVE approach provides a flexible tool for decision-makers and other stakeholders to increase understanding of which mixes of adaptation measures are robust responses to climate change.

Emerging neo-liberalising processes in New Zealand's land-based sector: A post structural political economy framing using emergence diagrams

The paper draws on Post Structural Political Economy (PSPE) to narrate and interrogate the emergence of neo-liberalising processes connected with New Zealand's land-based industries. It departs from conventional representations of economy, government and industry, by creating Emergence Diagrams (EDs) as a narrative technology. The diagrams are a methodological intervention in knowledge production that brings meso-level theorising and meso-level empirics into the same framing. The EDs are directed towards enlivening thinking and discussion about practices, possibilities and choices in New Zealand's investment environment as part of a conversation that the future might be otherwise. The paper begins by setting out the PSPE approach, indicates current thinking on emergence, and what it can offer in re-appraising evolving market systems. It then addresses and extends recent theoretical work in economic geography on neo-liberalising processes into a meso-level theoretical framing that can be used with meso-level empirics. The paper then considers steps in narrating situated accounts of emergence in the New Zealand context with the long term aim of reinvigorating the generation of and use of social knowledge. It establishes first, the insistent governmental market-making aspirations and action affecting the sector. Second, as a contextualising strategy to disturb standard accounts and to reveal the diversity and variegated nature of neo-liberalising influences, the main privatising moment of each industry in the sector is set in an overview of emerging features. Third, mindful of the new and often counter evidence of the preceding steps, the EDs of the apple and dairy industries are then constructed to reveal multiple dimensions of the collective assembling activity of market-making. The paper concludes with reflections on the potentialities of emergence narratives and the use of EDs in the development of enactive capabilities and politics in economic geography.

Towards a sustainable future for Nunavik

ABSTRACTThe predominantly Inuit Arctic region of Nunavik in the Province of Québec, Canada, currently needs to address major challenges and opportunities. The region needs to develop more employment and wealth creation opportunities without sacrificing the vital land-based subsistence sector that provides food security, sustains cultural identity and provides social and economic stability. A decision about a new direction needs to be taken soon as major mining projects are developing at a rapid pace. In this paper we first assess existing socioeconomic and living conditions data to evaluate the state of social well-being in the region. In addition we report and analyse information from an economic forum in Kuujjuaq, Nunavik in April 2010. The purpose of the forum was to provide an opportunity for regional and local stakeholders to obtain information on specific economic opportunities for Nunavik and to discuss their merit for the communities. Based on our data evaluation and the outcomes at the forum we identify a possible sustainable development feedback envisioning process and discuss possible sustainable development directions for Nunavik.

Greenhouse gas accounting for inventory, emissions trading and life cycle assessment in the land-based sector: a review

Governments, organisations and individuals have recognised the need to reduce their greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. To identify where savings can be made, and to monitor progress in reducing emissions, we need methodologies to quantify GHG emissions and sequestration. Through the Australian Government’s Carbon Farming Initiative (CFI) landholders may generate credits for reducing emissions and/or sequestering carbon (C). National GHG inventories for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, and accounting under the Kyoto Protocol use a sectoral approach. For example, fuel use in agriculture is reported in the transport component of the energy sector; energy use in producing herbicide and fertiliser is included in the manufacturing section of the energy sector; sequestration in farm forestry is reported in the land use, land-use change and forestry sector, while emissions reported in the agriculture sector include methane (CH4) from ruminant livestock, nitrous oxide (N2O) from soils, and non-carbon dioxide (CO2) GHG from stubble and savannah burning. In contrast, project-level accounting for CFI includes land-use change, forestry and agricultural sector emissions, and significant direct inputs such as diesel and electricity. A C footprint calculation uses a life cycle approach, including all the emissions associated with an organisation, activity or product. The C footprint of a food product includes the upstream emissions from manufacturing fertiliser and other inputs, fuel use in farming operations, transport, processing and packaging, distribution to consumers, electricity use in refrigeration and food preparation, and waste disposal. Methods used to estimate emissions range from simple empirical emissions factors, to complex process-based models. Methods developed for inventory and emissions trading must balance the need for sufficient accuracy to give confidence to the market, with practical aspects such as ease and expense of data collection. Requirements for frequent on-ground monitoring and third party verification of soil C or livestock CH4 estimates, for example, may incur costs that would negate the financial benefit of credits earned, and could also generate additional GHG emissions. Research is required to develop practical on-farm measures of CH4 and N2O, and methods to quantify C in environmental plantings, agricultural soils and rangeland ecosystems, to improve models for estimation and prediction of GHG emissions, and enable baseline assessment. There is a need for whole-farm level estimation tools that accommodate regional and management differences in emissions and sequestration to support landholders in managing net emissions from their farming enterprises. These on-farm ‘bottom-up’ accounting tools must align with the ‘top-down’ national account. To facilitate assessment of C footprints for food and fibre products, Australia also needs a comprehensive life cycle inventory database. This paper reviews current methods and approaches used for quantifying GHG emissions for the land-based sectors in the context of emissions reporting, emissions trading and C footprinting, and proposes possible improvements. We emphasise that cost-effective yet credible GHG estimation methods are needed to encourage participation in voluntary offset schemes such as the CFI, and thereby achieve maximum mitigation in the land-based sector.

The scope of the land-based sector to mitigate climate change in North-east Scotland: opportunities and challenges with particular reference to the role of forests

This paper reviews the scope for the rural land use sector to support emissions reduction with particular reference to the role of forestry. A bottom-up approach is adopted to explore the relative contribution of different land-based activities in the region and explore the Scottish policy context and the scope for emissions reduction through new tree planting. It is concluded that the institutional architecture is incomplete, in that although the Rural Development Programme supports afforestation, informal institutions, especially farmer antipathy, militate against afforestation. Ground-truthing indicates scope for major efficiency gains in emissions reduction if tradable solutions are pursued. There is scope for policy enhancement and, if land use sector carbon emissions were offset against farm-produced renewable energy and carbon emissions were taxed, a significant flow of money from low ground farms to the disadvantaged hill areas would be likely, as these areas have the greatest potential with respect to climate change mitigation.

Atmospheric bromoform at Mace Head, Ireland: seasonality and evidence for a peatland source

Abstract. In situ atmospheric observations of bromoform (CHBr3) made over a 2.5 year period at Mace Head, Ireland from May 2001- Dec 2003, including during the NAMBLEX (North Atlantic Marine Boundary Layer Experiment) campaign, show broad maxima from spring until autumn and winter minima, with mixing ratios of 5.3+1.0 pptv (mid March - mid October) and 1.8+0.8 pptv (December-February). This indicates that, unlike CHCl3, which has a summer minimum and winter maximum at Mace Head, local biological sources of CHBr3 have a greater influence on the atmospheric data than photochemical decay during long-range transport. The emission sources are predominantly macroalgal, but we find evidence for a small terrestrial flux from peatland ecosystems, which so far has not been accounted for in the CHBr3 budget. Sharp increases in CHCl3 and CHBr3 concentrations and decreases in O3 concentrations occurred at night when the wind direction switched from an ocean- to a land-based sector (land breeze) and the wind speed dropped to below 5 ms-1. These observations infer a shallow atmospheric boundary layer with increased O3 deposition and concentration of local emissions of both CHCl3 and CHBr3. The ratio of ΔCHCl3/ΔCHBr3 varied strongly according to the prevailing wind direction; from 0.60+0.15 in south-easterly (100-170° and northerly (340-20°) air to 2.5+0.4 in north-easterly (40-70°) air. Of these land-sectors, the south-easterly air masses are likely to be strongly influenced by macroalgal beds along the coast and the emission ratios probably reflect those from seaweeds in addition to land sources. The north-easterly airmasses however had an immediate fetch inland, which locally is comprised of coastal peatland ecosystems (peat bogs and coastal conifer plantations), previously identified as being strong sources of atmospheric CHCl3 under these conditions. Although we cannot entirely rule out other local land or coastal sources, our observations also suggest peatland ecosystem emissions of CHBr3. We use correlations between CHCl3 and CHBr3 during the north-easterly land breeze events in conjunction with previous estimates of local wetland CHCl3 release to tentatively deduce a global wetland CHBr3 source of 20.4(0.4-948) Gg yr-1, which is approximately 7% of the total global source.

An analysis of decision-making processes in multicultural maritime scenarios

With three research studies recently carried out the pros and cons of multicultural, multilingual crews have given a ‘second’ food for thought: 1. The Seafarers’ International Research Centre (SIRC): ‘Transnational Seafarer Communities’ and the research, ‘Finding a balance: companies, seafarers and family life’, linked to this [1]. The latter presented in Maritime Policy & Management, no. 1, January–March 2003. 2. The Swedish National Maritime Museum (SNMM): Isolde av Singapore [2]. This research and sociological documentation will be reviewed in a later issue of Maritime Policy & Management. 3. Horck, J., ‘A culturally mixed student body; the WMU experience in fostering future decision makers’ [3]. There is a growing conviction among seafarers and persons working in the land-based sector of the maritime industry (including ex-seafarers) that staff onboard and on shore should be prepared to work with crews and groups whose members come from different countries and cultures and speak different languages. The problem, though, is which culture will have to surrender and which will dominate? Will a third culture become the norm for common survival? Perhaps to understand oneself and be knowledgeable about others is a better way to avoid eventual conflicts. There are nearly no research findings on how a programme should comprise the aims of facilitating comprehension and appreciation of influences, from differences in cultural backgrounds, on group performance and decisions. This paper reports on the research carried out on students in the Shipping Management and the Maritime Education and Training courses at World Maritime University (WMU). How do post-graduate students holding unlimited certificates of competency, as well as holders of university degrees with experience in the maritime industry and maritime administration, come to a consensus decision? The findings in this research are discussed in balance with the results from both the SIRC and the SNMM research which is interesting because the results, in some significant issues, are not the same. A phenomenographic approach has been used to find out that a multicultural group is not free from working problems. Can cultural differences, perhaps, be developed from an assumed hindrance into a catalyst for stimulating national appreciation and cooperation? Perhaps the opposite is true; it might be a bottleneck for improvements in safety as formulated in the STCW95 and the ISM Code.

Applied general equilibrium analysis of trade liberalisation on land-based sectors in Malaysia and Indonesia

This paper presents general equilibrium evaluations of forest sector trade for Southeast Asian exporters. The four scenarios examined range from the 1994 Uruguay Round tariff reductions to a complete liberalisation of forest and agricultural products trade. We find that simultaneous reductions in forest and agricultural sector tariffs make Indonesia and Malaysia worse off. For Indonesia, this is due to the fall in forest rent and agricultural tariff revenues. Malaysia has the highest ratio of agricultural imports to total land-based sector imports, the rise in agricultural prices thus hits Malaysian consumers the hardest. We find that terms of trade effect omitted from the partial equilibrium framework may reduce the welfare calculations for Malaysia and Indonesia in the forest sector trade by as much as 106 and 58%, respectively. This points to the importance of general equilibrium modelling in the logging industry. The same applies to other sector specific analyses where trade is concentrated between few countries.

Model based analysis of future land-use development in China

The recognition that land-use changes are directly linked with economic decisions has led the land use change (LUC) project at the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA) to adopt an economic framework as the organizing principle of its modeling efforts. This paper discusses three complementary approaches used for analyzing and projecting regional land use in China. First, an enhanced agro-ecological zones (AEZ) assessment model provides a spatially explicit measure of production potentials for agricultural land uses. Next, land-use change scenarios are assessed with an extended input–output model of China’s economy. Finally, we indicate how land-use policy alternatives can adequately be analyzed in a multi-region economic framework using optimization when an AEZ-based representation of climate and biophysical conditions is incorporated in the model specification. The analysis makes a strong appeal for sustaining efforts that can furnish rapid technological progress in land-based sectors, and it suggests that an increase of grain imports to about 10–15% of China’s current total grain output would greatly reduce the pressure on cropland and water resources, especially in the northern half of the country.