Rock Ptarmigan Research Articles

Changes in Evermann's Rock Ptarmigan Density on an Eastern Portion of Attu Island, Alaska, 2003–2009

Investigations of insular populations of Rock Ptarmigan (Lagopus muta) in Alaska over time are uncommon. We documented changes in spring density of Evermann's Rock Ptarmigan (L. m. evermanni) on a portion of Attu Island, Alaska, from 2003 through 2009. Populations were 8.5 birds/km2 in 2003, decreased by approximately one-half in 2004 (3.8 birds/km2), and continued to decrease in 2005 (1.9 birds/km2), 2006 (0.8 birds/km2), and 2007 (0.6 birds/km2), reaching a low of 0.3 birds/km2 in 2009. The overall decrease from 2003 through 2007, and 2009 was approximately 97%. We conclude the most reasonable explanation for the decline was poor recruitment (90% decrease from 2003 to 2006) of young (subadult = yearling) to the spring population, possibly related to natural cycling of the population. We could not identify specific factors to explain the low recruitment.

The Avifauna of Southern Istria (Croatia) During the Late Pleistocene: Implications for the Palaeoecology and Biodiversity of the Northern Adriatic Region

ABSTRACTThis paper presents palaeoecological and taphonomic analyses of bird remains from Late Pleistocene sediments from two caves in southern Istria, Šandalja II and Ljubićeva pećina. Most of the identified species are found today in Istria and along the Adriatic coast, although the presence of ptarmigan (Lagopus mutus) and willow grouse (L. lagopus) indicates colder conditions than those characteristic of the region today. Taxa from both sites are characteristic of open, forest‐steppe, rocky, forest, and mixed biotopes. These sites differ somewhat in avifaunal composition — aquatic‐adapted taxa are only found at Šandalja II, probably reflecting differences in human activities and in their geographic settings. Likewise, only Šandalja's assemblages show an increase in the representation of forest‐adapted taxa over time. These data from the bird remains complement reconstructions based on mammalian assemblages from these sites. Different taphonomic agents accumulated the bird bones, and bone surface modifications show that birds of prey, small carnivores, and Late Upper Palaeolithic people helped accumulate these remains. The important Late Pleistocene avifaunal assemblages from southern Istria indicate that a mosaic of habitats was present during the Late Pleistocene and a deep time depth to the rich biodiversity of the region today. Furthermore they suggest that the exposed Adriatic Plain supported a diverse and rich biome. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Habitat selection by breeding rock ptarmigan Lagopus muta helvetica males in the western Italian Alps

Knowledge of resource selection patterns can provide important information for species conservation. During spring 2010 and 2011, we investigated habitat selection by territorial rock ptarmigan Lagopus muta helvetica males in a protected area of the western Italian Alps. We located males from 30 randomly selected survey points, and we measured the proportions of cover‐type categories found within a 37‐ha area surrounding each observed bird using three classification maps of differing information and resolution. We also evaluated physical variables (altitude, slope and solar radiation) associated with the birds using a 75‐m digital terrain model. We modelled land cover and physical attributes under these three alternative land‐classification maps. The lowest resolution map, based on the Corine land‐cover map, did not have high predictive value because only orographic variables described the presence of birds; in our case, we found a negative effect of slope and a positive effect of altitude on presence of ptarmigan. The next higher resolution map, a local forest resource map, showed that slope had a negative effect and rocky grasslands had a positive effect on ptarmigan presence. Finally, using the highest resolution map, a phytosociological map of our Natural Park study area, the best‐ranked models were those having only cover‐type variables, with alpenrose Rhododendron ferrugineum and blueberry Vaccinium myrtillus scrubland and pioneer vegetation negatively correlated with the presence of rock ptarmigan. We concluded that a staged approach that uses maps of differing detail was successful for obtaining useful information on rock ptarmigan habitat selection, but the most interesting results about rock ptarmigan habitat selection at the scale of breeding territories were obtained only using a very detailed vegetation map. Because such detailed information is difficult to obtain on larger scales, we suggest wildlife managers cooperate to build similar mapping tools that allow analyses similar to ours.

Population viability analysis of the Japanese rock ptarmigan Lagopus muta japonica in Japan

The Japanese rock ptarmigan Lagopus muta japonica breeds only in limited alpine areas at high elevations (> 2,500 m a.s.l.) in Japan. The estimated population size is about 2,000 birds and their breeding distribution is subdivided into several local areas, in each of which they may be at risk of local extinction. We estimated age‐specific demographic parameters of the core population breeding on Mt. Norikura in Gifu and Nagano prefecture in Japan. We also estimated population viability using deterministic and stochastic population models. Age‐specific fertility (the number of female offspring that survived to the next breeding season per female) was 0.417 ± 0.086, 0.490 ± 0.080, 0.513 ± 0.153, 0.435 ± 0.078, 0.562 ± 0.139, 0.580 ± 0.122 (mean ± SE) for ages 1‐6+, respectively. The annual survival rate was 0.739 ± 0.047, 0.624 ± 0.064, 0.513 ± 0.087, 0.732 ± 0.151, 0.447 ± 0.220, 0.486 ± 0.089. The population growth rate, evaluated by use of a deterministic projection‐matrix model, predicted a stable population, λ = 1.105 ± 0.063, 95% CI = 0.985‐1.231 and λ = 1.114 ± 0.062, 0.996‐1.239, using two different assumptions for the final age of reproduction by ptarmigan. We evaluated the risk of extinction as the proportion of λs that was < 1, and this was ≤ 4.4%. To complement the deterministic model, we developed an individual‐based stochastic population model in which each of the individuals produced a variable number of offspring and survived one year with certain probabilities that were drawn from estimated distributions of age‐specific clutch size and survival rates. Averaged population growth rate under the stochastic model was λ = 1.1, and the risk of extinction defined as the proportion of trials in which population size ≤ 1 within 30 years was ≤ 8.9%, even when the starting population was small (15 birds). These results suggest that the local population at Mt. Norikura is stable in size and suffers a relatively low risk of extinction. We suggest that this population can serve as a potential source for surrounding small local populations that may be sink populations.

Chick and juvenile survival of Japanese rock ptarmigan Lagopus muta japonica

We estimated clutch size, hatching success, chick survival before independence from hens and juvenile survival after independence in Japanese rock ptarmigan Lagopus muta japonica during 2006‐2012 on Mt. Norikura, Honshu, Japan. The tame behaviour of this subspecies provided us a unique opportunity to observe them at a close range throughout the period from hatching to adulthood. The average clutch size was 5.7 ± 0.1 (± SE). We estimated the average hatching success to be 0.602 ± 0.880, the average nest hatching success to be 0.733 ± 1.071, the average hatchability of successful nests to be 0.907 ± 0.017 and average female survival during June, as an indicator of their survival during laying and the incubation periods, to be 0.905 ± 0.055. We attributed all egg losses to predation by carnivores. Clutch size, nest success, hatchability and female survival during June did not vary among years. Chick survival decreased sharply during the first four weeks of the brooding season. The average annual chick survival until independence was 0.278 ± 0.097, but it varied from 0.096 ± 0.051 to 0.639 ± 0.084. Survival of juveniles after independence was higher than for chicks before independence. Average over‐winter survival of juveniles was larger and was 0.902 ± 0.015. We estimated the average reproductive success of Japanese rock ptarmigan from egg‐laying to one year old to be 0.586 ± 0.883 birds/breeding female. Weather conditions, especially rainfall, during the first two weeks of the brooding season appeared to negatively affect chick survival.

Climate Change and Human Disturbance Can Lead to Local Extinction of Alpine Rock Ptarmigan: New Insight from the Western Italian Alps

Alpine grouses are particularly vulnerable to climate change due to their adaptation to extreme conditions and to their relict distributions in the Alps where global warming has been particularly marked in the last half century. Grouses are also currently threatened by habitat modification and human disturbance, and an assessment of the impact of multiple stressors is needed to predict the fate of Alpine populations of these birds in the next decades. We estimated the effect of climate change and human disturbance on a rock ptarmigan population living in the western Italian Alps by combining an empirical population modelling approach and stochastic simulations of the population dynamics under the a1B climate scenario and two different disturbance scenarios, represented by the development of a ski resort, through 2050.The early appearance of snow-free ground in the previous spring had a favorable effect on the rock ptarmigan population, probably through a higher reproductive success. On the contrary, delayed snowfall in autumn had a negative effect possibly due to a mismatch in time to molt to white winter plumage which increases predation risk. The regional climate model PROTHEUS does not foresee any significant change in snowmelt date in the study area, while the start date of continuous snow cover is expected to be significantly delayed. The net effect in the stochastic projections is a more or less pronounced (depending on the model used) decline in the studied population. The addition of extra-mortality due to collision with ski-lift wires led the population to fatal consequences in most projections. Should these results be confirmed by larger studies the conservation of Alpine populations would deserve more attention. To counterbalance the effects of climate change, the reduction of all causes of death should be pursued, through a strict preservation of the habitats in the present area of occurrence.

Experimental harvest reveals the importance of territoriality in limiting the breeding population of Svalbard rock ptarmigan

The Svalbard rock ptarmigan (Lagopus muta hyperborea) is an endemic subspecies of rock ptarmigan inhabiting the high Arctic archipelagos of Svalbard and Franz Josefs Land. This ptarmigan species exists at low population densities, with little interannual variations in population numbers, and limited habitat for breeding with less than 5 % of the land area in Svalbard constituting medium to high quality breeding habitat. Unander and Steen (1985) hypothesized, based on a descriptive study, that territories sufficiently attractive for breeding could be a limiting factor of the Svalbard rock ptarmigan population. Here, we use experimental data from a 3-year removal experiment (1984–1986) to test their hypothesis by comparing breeding density, demography (sex and age ratios) and body mass of birds between experimental removal plots and control locations. We found evidence of surplus birds by showing that both sexes of Svalbard rock ptarmigan replaced quickly in vacant territories after removal of the resident birds, and that breeding densities were similar for the experimental and control populations. Replaced males in the breeding population weighed less than males in the initial breeding population and tended to be younger. Experimental harvest during the preceding spring had no effect on male body mass, population sex ratio or the proportion of juvenile males in the pre-breeding population the following spring. The documented surplus of male and female Svalbard rock ptarmigan and a lack of impact on breeding densities from removal of birds leave a proportion available for harvest.

Virological Investigation of Avian Influenza Virus on Postglacial Species of Phasianidae and Tetraonidae in the Italian Alps

Land-based birds, belonging to Galliformes order are considered to be potential intermediaries in the emergence of new strains of influenza A viruses (AIVs), but the viral circulation in these birds remains largely unknown. To gain insights into the circulation of AIV in the wild Galliformes populations in Italian Alps, we conducted a virological survey on rock partridge (Alectoris graeca saxatilis) belonging to Phasianidae family and on tetraonids including rock ptarmigan (Lagopus mutus helveticus) and black grouse (Tetrao tetrix tetrix). In 2003 and 2004, during the hunting seasons, 79 wild Galliformes, categorised into age and sex classes, were hunted in the Sondrio Province (Central Alps). Cloacal swabs were collected from 11 rock partridges and from 68 tetraonids including 23 alpine rock ptarmigans and 45 black grouses. We tested cloacal swabs by a high sensitive reverse transcription- (RT-) PCR detecting the matrix gene of AIV. No AIV was detected in the investigated samples, thus, suggesting the lack of AIV circulation in these relict populations in the study period. In terms of threatened species conservation, during wildlife management activities, it is very important to exclude the introduction of AIV-carrier birds in shared territories, a fact representing a health risk for these populations.

Rock Ptarmigan (Lagopus muta) breeding habitat use in northern Sweden

Alpine and arctic tundra regions are likely to retract as a result of climate warming and concerns have been raised over the status of the Rock Ptarmigan (Lagopus muta). In Fennoscandia, the Rock Ptarmigan has low population abundance, and predictions based on harvest statistics show population declines throughout the range. In this study, we used a long-term opportunistic dataset of Rock Ptarmigan observations, environmental predictors derived from a digital vegetation map and a digital elevation model to describe the breeding distribution at three different ecological scales. Patterns of spatial distribution were similar across all the three study scales. The presence of permanent snow-fields positively influenced the occurrence of Rock Ptarmigan at the territory and landscape scale. Open vegetation, rock-dominated areas and, in particular, dry heath influenced Rock Ptarmigan presence positively at all scales. Altitude and terrain heterogeneity were important variables at all scales, with higher probabilities of Rock Ptarmigan being present at intermediate altitude ranges, with a high degree of terrain heterogeneity. This is the first study to describe Rock Ptarmigan breeding distribution in Fennoscandia and our findings yield new insights into the environmental variables that are important for the spatial distribution of Rock Ptarmigan during the breeding season. When planning conservation efforts, this information should be used to inform management regarding the protection of core areas and buffer zones related to the conservation and harvest management of the Rock Ptarmigan.

Pyrenean ptarmigans decline under climatic and human influences through the Holocene.

In Europe, the Quaternary is characterized by climatic fluctuations known to have led to many cycles of contraction and expansion of species geographical ranges. In addition, during the Holocene, historical changes in human occupation such as colonization or abandonment of traditional land uses can also affect habitats. These climatically or anthropically induced geographic range changes are expected to produce considerable effective population size change, measurable in terms of genetic diversity and organization. The rock ptarmigan (Lagopus muta) is a small-bodied grouse occurring throughout Northern hemispheric arctic and alpine tundra. This species is not considered threatened at a continental scale, but the populations in the Pyrenees are of concern because of their small population size, geographical isolation and low genetic diversity. Here, we used 11 microsatellites to investigate genetic variations and differentiations and infer the overall demographic history of Pyrenean rock ptarmigan populations. The low genetic variability found in these populations has been previously thought to be the result of a bottleneck that occurred following the last glacial maximum (i.e., 10,000 years ago) or more recently (i.e., during the last 200 years). Our results clearly indicate a major bottleneck affecting the populations in the last tenth of the Holocene. We discuss how this decline can be explained by a combination of unfavorable and successive events that increased the degree of habitat fragmentation.

Modelling habitat suitability for alpine rock ptarmigan (Lagopus muta helvetica) combining object-based classification of IKONOS imagery and Habitat Suitability Index modelling

The maintenance and restoration of high-quality habitats of wildlife species in alpine ecosystems are key issues in conservation biology. The rock ptarmigan (Lagopus muta helvetica), which prefers open habitats above the treeline, is listed in Annex II of the EU Bird Directive. Large areas identified as potentially important for conservation and restricted financial resources for the implementation of conservation activities necessitate the development of tools supporting habitat monitoring and management. We developed a knowledge-based Habitat Suitability Index (HSI) model for rock ptarmigan and combined it with results of an object-based image analysis of very high resolution (VHR) satellite images (IKONOS) to create a rock ptarmigan habitat suitability map in the eastern Alps of Austria. The mechanistic habitat model contained 9 habitat variables, decisive for summer habitat use of rock ptarmigan (i.e., slope, patchiness, and land cover classes for: rocks, rocks intermixed with vegetation, scree, dwarf shrubs, dwarf pine, alpine/subnival grassland, and forest). We used Definiens Professional 5.0© software for the object-based image analyses, applying multi-resolution segmentation methods. We generated a classification hierarchy comprising the same variables used in the HSI model, each augmented by areas “in shadow”, and took into account clouds, water bodies and human infrastructures. We assessed classification accuracies, applying an Error Matrix based on TTA Mask. We reached an overall classification accuracy of 0.75 and a kappa statistic value of 0.70, the latter indicating good to very good agreement. The classification results indicated that the object-oriented image classification approach using VHR data was appropriately used to create an adequate thematic map for further habitat modelling. We calculated the habitat suitability maps using MapModels. Model output was validated with ptarmigan presence–absence data, using signs (droppings) as indicators of presence. We compared presence–absence data and results of habitat suitability classification employing contingency tables and non-parametric correlations. Frequencies of sample plots with rock ptarmigan signs significantly differed between the habitat suitability classes and significantly correlated with the HSI level. Combining the mechanistic HSI model with an object-base image analysis of VHR satellite images was an effective tool for the spatially explicit assessment of habitat suitability and could be useful in regional monitoring, planning and management activities for ptarmigan.

Climate Events Synchronize the Dynamics of a Resident Vertebrate Community in the High Arctic

Recently accumulated evidence has documented a climate impact on the demography and dynamics of single species, yet the impact at the community level is poorly understood. Here, we show that in Svalbard in the high Arctic, extreme weather events synchronize population fluctuations across an entire community of resident vertebrate herbivores and cause lagged correlations with the secondary consumer, the arctic fox. This synchronization is mainly driven by heavy rain on snow that encapsulates the vegetation in ice and blocks winter forage availability for herbivores. Thus, indirect and bottom-up climate forcing drives the population dynamics across all overwintering vertebrates. Icing is predicted to become more frequent in the circumpolar Arctic and may therefore strongly affect terrestrial ecosystem characteristics.

The past, present and potential future distributions of cold‐adapted bird species

AbstractAimSpecies' distributions change through time, and many species have recently shifted their ranges in response to anthropogenic climate change. However, predicting future distributional changes remains a challenge. We tested the ability of climate‐only distributional models, built using present‐day climate data, to project distributions of four European bird species during the Last Glacial Maximum. Projected distributions under past climate scenarios were compared with fossil data to gauge the validity of the projections.LocationEurope and North Africa (30°N–82°N, 31°W–61°E).MethodsWe generated generalized additive models (GAMs) between the present‐day climate and distributions of four cold‐adapted bird species. These models were projected onto climatic conditions representative of the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM, 21,000 years ago) and future conditions (2080s). We tested the capacity of these climate‐only models to produce realistic projections under colder, past climates using fossil distributional data.ResultsModels and empirical data both indicate that the Willow grouse Lagopus lagopus and Rock ptarmigan Lagopus mutus occurred at lower latitudes during the LGM, compared with their current distributions, whereas the currently montane Yellow‐billed chough Pyrrhocorax graculus and White‐winged snowfinch Montifringilla nivalis would have had broadly similar LGM and present‐day distributions. Models and empirical data agree that all four species co‐occurred at the LGM in central/southern Europe, although they do not do so today. Future projections indicate that the LGM four‐species community may be reunited in Scandinavia by the end of this century if the southern species are able to colonize.Main ConclusionsOur results suggest that climatic constraints are sufficient to capture the key attributes of the distributional changes in these four bird species, revealing individualistic responses and community disassembly and re‐assembly through time and space.

The authorship and type localities of bird taxa (Aves) collected during the John Ross 1818 Expedition to the Baffin Bay, northwestern Atlantic Ocean

The 1818 expedition to the Baffin Bay, headed by Captain John Ross, resulted in the description of at least six bird speciesand four bird genera believed to be new to science. My review of publications relevant to the history of the expedition andto its ornithological outputs resulted in the correction of authorship of several of these names, as follows: The genus So-materia (Anatidae) dates from Leach (in Anonymous 1818), not from Leach (in Ross 1819c). The author of the generaClangula (Anatidae) and Xema (Laridae) is Ross (1819c), not Leach (in Ross 1819c). The species Larus sabini (Laridae)dates from J. Sabine (in Anonymous 1819a), not from J. Sabine (1819). The subspecies of Lagopus mutus (Tetraonidae)from western Greenland should be called Lagopus mutus dispar Ross, 1820c, not Lagopus mutus saturatus Salomonsen, 1950, if recognized. Other corrections consider names which are currently not used as valid.

The Ptarmigan, Lagopus mutus, in the Natural Park Val Troncea (Piedmont Region)

A research on Ptarmigan, Lagopus mutus, is presented, based on occasional observations collected from 1984 to 2007 and spring censuses for the years 2005 and 2006 in a suitable sample area, according to the methods described in literature. Data refer to random sightings (observations, vocalizations, faeces); spring censuses were geo-referenced and analyzed using a geographic information system (Grass 6.2, ArcView 3.2). The application of an altitudinal model of terrain allowed us to assign to each animal contacted the value of the altitude, exposure and slope inclination.

Attitudes of Norwegian ptarmigan hunters towards hunting goals and harvest regulations: the effects of environmental orientation

Ptarmigan (Lagopus mutus) hunting has long traditions in Norway. It is often assumed that hunters are more consumptively and less conservation oriented than other recreational groups. Considering the large numbers of hunters and the popularity of the sport it is more likely that hunters value both consumptive and appreciative aspects and represent diversity in their concern for the environment. In this study we surveyed 2,717 ptarmigan hunters to examine environmental orientation, and the effects of environmental orientation on different management regulations. Results showed that environmental concern is a discriminating factor for how the hunters rate hunting goals, harvest regulation measures, and acceptance of protecting parts of the bird populations in refuges. Increasing environmental concern is positively correlated with higher acceptance of regulatory management actions aimed at preserving the resource. Socio-demographic variables had limited effect on the relationship between environmental concern and attitudes toward management. Small game management needs to balance consumptive and appreciative experience dimensions, and degree of environmental orientation may be an indicator of acceptance of management actions.

Commentary: Colonization of the arctic archipelago Svalbard

ISSN 1948-6596 news and update commentary Colonization of the arctic archipelago Svalbard We have more knowledge on colonization to the Arctic Archipelago of Svalbard than to any other arctic region. Previous analyses include the only native terrestrial mammals, reindeer (Flagstad and Roed 2003) and arctic fox (Dalen et al. 2005), the only fresh water fish, arctic charr (Brunner et al. 2001), several Daphnia species (Weider et al. 1999), the moth Plutella xylostella (Coulson et al. 2002), and many vascular plant species (Brochmann et al. 2003, Alsos et al. 2007). Re- cently, also the colonization routes for the only resident terrestrial bird, the Svalbard rock ptarmi- gan (Lagopus muta ssp. Hyperborea, Figure 1) have been analysed (Sahlman et al. 2009). Svalbard represents an ideal model system for studying colonization for several reasons. It was almost entirely glaciated during the last gla- cial maximum 20,000 years before the present (Landvik et al. 1998, Landvik et al. 2003) and thus glacial survival can mainly be ruled out as explana- tion for the presence of species. Fossil evidence indicates sparse arctic vegetation from 10,000 years B.P. (Birks et al. 1994), which thus gives the maximum time frame for colonization events. It is geographically isolated, and the distances to near- est lands are 470 to northeast Greenland, 650 km to N Norway, 870 km to Novaya Zemlya, and 240 to the high arctic archipelago Frans Josef Land. The Svalbard rock ptarmigan, L. muta ssp. hyperborea, is restricted to Svalbard and Frans Josef Land. It belongs to the large rock ptarmigan species complex (Lagopus muta) which originated in Beringia (Lucchini et al. 2001), and now consists of up to 30 different subspecies which are found throughout the circumpolar region as well as in many temperate alpine regions (Storch 2007). The Svalbard rock ptarmigan is commonly seen from March to October, but it is a puzzle where they spend the winter, as the dark polar night makes visual observations difficult. Rock ptarmigan in other regions have seasonal migrations of up to 500 km (arctic Russia) or 1,000 km (coastal Greenland). It is assumed that Svalbard rock ptar- migans stay in Svalbard during winter, possibly Figure 1. The Svalbard rock ptarmigan (Lagopus mutus ssp. hyperboreus) colonized Svalbard from Russia or Greenland according to a recent study (Sahlman et al. 2009). Photo: Bjorn Erik Sandbakk. frontiers of biogeography 1.2, 2009 — © 2009 the authors; journal compilation © 2009 The International Biogeography Society

Habitat at the mountain tops: how long can Rock Ptarmigan (Lagopus muta helvetica) survive rapid climate change in the Swiss Alps? A multi-scale approach

Ongoing monitoring in the Swiss Alps has shown that Rock Ptarmigan (Lagopus muta helvetica) has suffered a significant population decrease over the last decade and climate change has been proposed as a potential cause. In this study, we investigate the response of this high alpine grouse species to rapid climate change. We address a problem often neglected in macro-ecological studies on species distribution: scale-dependency of distribution models. The models are based on empirical field data and on environmental databases for large-scale models. The implementation of several statistical modelling approaches, external validation strategies and the implementation of a recent study on regional climate change in Switzerland ensure robust predictions of future range shifts. Our results demonstrate that, on the territory level, variables depicting vegetation, heterogeneity of local topography and habitat structure have greatest explanatory power. In contrast at the meso-scale and macro-scale (with grain sizes of 1 and 100 km2, respectively), bioclimatic and land cover-related variables play a prominent role. The models predict that, based on increasing temperatures during the breeding season, potential habitat will decrease by up to two-thirds until the year 2070. At the same time, a shift of potential habitat towards the mountain tops is predicted. The multi-scale approach highlights the true extent of potential habitat for this species with its patchy distribution in steep terrain. The small-scale analysis pinpoints the key habitat areas within the extensive areas of suitable habitat predicted by models on large grain sizes and in this way reveals sub-grid variability. Our results can facilitate the adaptation of species conservation strategies to a quickly changing environment.

The Parasite Fauna of Rock Ptarmigan (Lagopus muta) in Iceland: Prevalence, Intensity, and Distribution Within the Host Population

One hundred rock ptarmigan (Lagopus muta), including 30 each of juvenile males and females, and 20 each of adult males and females, were collected in October 2006 in northeast Iceland to study their parasite fauna. Fourteen different parasite species were identified: 6 endoparasites (including the protozoans Eimeria muta, Eimeria rjupa; the heterokontophyt Blastocystis sp.; the nematodes Capillaria caudinflata and Trichostrongylus tenuis; and the cestode Passerilepis serpentulus) and 8 ectoparasites (including the feather mites Metamicrolichus islandicus, Strelkoviacarus holoaspis, Tetraolichus lagopi, and Myialges borealis; the feather lice Goniodes lagopi, Lagopoecus affinis, and Amyrsidea lagopi; and the louse fly Ornithomya chloropus). Blastocystis sp., P. serpentulus and A. lagopi are new host records. All parasite species showed aggregated distributions. Six species, E. rjupa, P. serpentulus, M. islandicus, G. lagopi, L. affinis, and O. chloropus, were more prevalent in juveniles than in adults, and 2 species, Blastocystis sp. and T. tenuis, were more prevalent in adults than in juveniles. The remaining species did not show age-related differences in prevalence. Blastocystis sp. is the only possible zoonotic parasite.

The metabolic cost of incline locomotion in the Svalbard rock ptarmigan (Lagopus muta hyperborea): the effects of incline grade and seasonal fluctuations in body mass

In a terrestrial environment animals must locomote over varying terrain; despite this, the majority of studies of animal locomotion focus on level locomotion. The influence moving up an inclined surface has on the metabolic cost of locomotion and the efficiency with which animals perform positive work against gravity is still not well understood. Generally speaking, existing data sets lack consistency in the use of grades, further compounded by differences between species in terms of morphology and locomotor gait. Here we investigated the metabolic cost of locomotion using respirometry in the Svalbard ptarmigan (Lagopus muta hyperborea). The Svalbard ptarmigan provides a unique opportunity to investigate the cost of incline locomotion as it undergoes a seasonal fluctuation in body mass, which doubles in winter, meaning the requirement for positive mechanical work also fluctuates with season. We demonstrate that at the same degree of incline, the cost of lifting 1 kg by 1 vertical metre remains relatively constant between seasons despite the large differences in body mass from summer to winter. These findings are consistent with the notion that positive mechanical work alone dictates the cost of lifting above a certain body mass. However, our data indicate that this cost may vary according to the degree of incline and gait.