L6 Myocytes Research Articles

Abstract 322: Reversal of Intramuscular Lipotoxicity is Mediated by a Novel p62-lipophagy Pathway

Background and Hypothesis: In the mammalian heart, autophagy is considered an adaptive mechanism promoting the removal of protein aggregates or damaged cell organelles. A common feature of non-ischemic heart failure is lipid accumulation. We hypothesize that autophagy is impaired in the muscle in chronic lipid overload. Therefore, we investigated whether activation of autophagy protects myocytes from lipotoxicity. Methods: We incubated rat L6 myocytes over a period of 6 days with or without long chain fatty acids (equimolar mixture of oleate and palmitate, 1.0mM). At day 6, an autophagic inhibitor (bafilomycin A1, 200 nM), or an autophagic activator (rapamycin, 1 μM), or both, were added for 48 hours. Following the pharmacologic treatments, glucose uptake was measured using [3H] 2-Deoxy-D-glucose, and insulin sensitivity was assessed. Intracellular triglyceride (TG) accumulation was assessed by Oil Red O staining and immunofluorescence and was quantified enzymatically. Protein markers of autophagic flux (LC3 and p62) and cell death (Caspase 3 cleavage) were measured by immunoblotting. Results: Inhibition of autophagy using bafilomycin increased TG accumulation and also increased fatty acid-mediated cell death. Conversely, activation of autophagy using rapamycin reduced both intracellular lipid accumulation and cell death. Unexpectedly, treatment with both rapamycin and bafilomycin resulted in a decrease in lipid accumulation. Immunoblotting indicated p62 degradation (autophagic flux), while immunofluorescence revealed the colocalization of p62 with lipid droplets in these cells. These findings indicate the potential association of p62 with lipid droplet turnover, which is a novel pathway for the breakdown of lipid droplets in muscle cells. In the same cells, rapamycin treatment increased glucose uptake, in response to insulin (100mM). Conclusions: Autophagy promotes the clearance of lipids from myocytes, improves insulin sensitivity, and switches to an alternative p62 mediated pathway of lipophagy in the context of chronic lipid overload. Moreover, lipophagy promotes metabolic adaptation and myocyte survival.

Low-Molecular-Weight Peptides from Salmon Protein Prevent Obesity-Linked Glucose Intolerance, Inflammation, and Dyslipidemia in LDLR−/−/ApoB100/100 Mice1–3

Background: We previously reported that fish proteins can alleviate metabolic syndrome (MetS) in obese animals and human subjects.Objectives: We tested whether a salmon peptide fraction (SPF) could improve MetS in mice and explored potential mechanisms of action.Methods: ApoB100 only, LDL receptor knockout male mice (LDLR−/−/ApoB100/100) were fed a high-fat and -sucrose (HFS) diet (25 g/kg sucrose). Two groups were fed 10 g/kg casein hydrolysate (HFS), and 1 group was additionally fed 4.35 g/kg fish oil (FO; HFS+FO). Two other groups were fed 10 g SPF/kg (HFS+SPF), and 1 group was additionally fed 4.35 g FO/kg (HFS+SPF+FO). A fifth (reference) group was fed a standard feed pellet diet. We assessed the impact of dietary treatments on glucose tolerance, adipose tissue inflammation, lipid homeostasis, and hepatic insulin signaling. The effects of SPF on glucose uptake, hepatic glucose production, and inducible nitric oxide synthase activity were further studied in vitro with the use of L6 myocytes, FAO hepatocytes, and J774 macrophages.Results: Mice fed HFS+SPF or HFS+SPF+FO diets had lower body weight (protein effect, P = 0.024), feed efficiency (protein effect, P = 0.018), and liver weight (protein effect, P = 0.003) as well as lower concentrations of adipose tissue cytokines and chemokines (protein effect, P ≤ 0.003) compared with HFS and HFS+FO groups. They also had greater glucose tolerance (protein effect, P < 0.001), lower activation of the mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1/S6 kinase 1/insulin receptor substrate 1 (mTORC1/S6K1/IRS1) pathway, and increased insulin signaling in liver compared with the HFS and HFS+FO groups. The HFS+FO, HFS+SPF, and HFS+SPF+FO groups had lower plasma triglycerides (protein effect, P = 0.003; lipid effect, P = 0.002) than did the HFS group. SPF increased glucose uptake and decreased HGP and iNOS activation in vitro.Conclusions: SPF reduces obesity-linked MetS features in LDLR−/−/ApoB100/100 mice. The anti-inflammatory and glucoregulatory properties of SPF were confirmed in L6 myocytes, FAO hepatocytes, and J774 macrophages.

LTB4 promotes insulin resistance in obese mice by acting on macrophages, hepatocytes and myocytes.

Chronic inflammation is a key component of obesity–induced insulin resistance and plays a central role in metabolic disease. In this study, we found that the major insulin target tissues, liver, muscle and adipose tissue exhibit increased levels of the chemotactic eicosanoid LTB4 in obese high fat diet (HFD) mice compared to lean chow fed mice. Inhibition of the LTB4 receptor, Ltb4r1, through either genetic or pharmacologic loss of function results in an anti–inflammatory phenotype with protection from systemic insulin resistance and hepatic steatosis in the setting of both HFD–induced and genetic obesity. Importantly, in vitro treatment with LTB4 directly enhanced macrophage chemotaxis, stimulated inflammatory pathways in macrophages, promoted de novo hepatic lipogenesis, decreased insulin stimulated glucose uptake in L6 myocytes, increased gluconeogenesis, and impaired insulin–mediated suppression of hepatic glucose output (HGO) in primary mouse hepatocytes. This was accompanied by decreased insulin stimulated Akt phosphorylation and increased Irs1 and Irs2 serine phosphorylation and all of these events were Gαi and Jnk dependent. Taken together, these observations elucidate a novel role of LTB4/Ltb4r1 in the etiology of insulin resistance in hepatocytes and myocytes, and shows that in vivo inhibition of Ltb4r1 leads to robust insulin sensitizing effects.

Caulerpa lentillifera extract ameliorates insulin resistance and regulates glucose metabolism in C57BL/KsJ-db/db mice via PI3K/AKT signaling pathway in myocytes.

BackgroundGlucose homeostasis is distorted by defects of the PI3K/AKT and AMPK pathways in insulin-sensitive tissues, allowing the accumulation of glucose in the blood. The purpose of this study was to assess the effects and mechanisms by which ethanol extract of Caulerpa lentillifera (CLE) regulates glucose metabolism in C57BL/KsJ-db/db (db/db) mice.MethodsMice were administered CLE (250 or 500 mg/kg BW) or rosiglitazone (RSG, 10 mg/kg BW) for 6 weeks. Then, oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) and intraperitoneal insulin tolerance test (IPITT) were performed, and blood glucose was measured in db/db mice. Levels of insulin and insulin resistance factors in plasma, glycogen content in the liver, and IRS, PI3K, AKT, and GLUT4 expressions in skeletal muscles were measured in db/db mice. Glucose uptake and insulin signaling molecules were measured in L6 myocytes, using fluorometry and Western blotting.ResultsCLE significantly decreased fasting blood glucose, glucose level in OGTT and IPITT, plasma insulin, homeostatic model assessment-insulin resistant (HOMA-IR), TNF-α, IL-6, FFA, TG and TC levels, and hepatic glycogen content in db/db mice. CLE significantly increased the activation of IRS, AKT, PI3K, and GLUT4, which are the key effector molecules of the PI3K/AKT pathway in L6 myocytes and the skeletal muscles of db/db mice. The enhanced glucose uptake by CLE was abolished by treatment with a PI3K inhibitor (LY294002), but not by an AMPK inhibitor (compound C) in L6 myocytes. CLE regulated glucose uptake and homeostasis via the PI3K/AKT pathway in myocytes and db/db mice, respectively.ConclusionOur results suggest that CLE could be a potential candidate for the prevention of diabetes.

Synthetic (+)-antroquinonol exhibits dual actions against insulin resistance by triggering AMP kinase and inhibiting dipeptidyl peptidase IV activities.

The fungal product (+)-antroquinonol activates AMP kinase (AMPK) activity in cancer cell lines. The present study was conducted to examine whether chemically synthesized (+)-antroquinonol exhibited beneficial metabolic effects in insulin-resistant states by activating AMPK and inhibiting dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPP IV) activity. Effects of (+)-antroquinonol on DPP IV activity were measured with a DPPIV Assay Kit and effects on GLP-1-induced PKA were measured in AR42J cells. Translocation of the glucose transporter 4, GLUT4, induced either by insulin-dependent PI3K/AKT signalling or by insulin-independent AMPK activation, was assayed in differentiated myotubes. Glucose uptake and GLUT4 translocation were assayed in L6 myocytes. Mice with diet-induced obesity were used to assess effects of acute and chronic treatment with (+)-antroquinonol on glycaemic control in vivo. The results showed that of (+)-antroquinonol (100 μM ) inhibited the DPP IV activity as effectively as the clinically used inhibitor, sitagliptin. The phosphorylation of AMPK Thr(172) in differentiated myotubes was significantly increased by (+)-antroquinonol. In cells simultaneously treated with S961 (insulin receptor antagonist), insulin and (+)-antroquinonol, the combination of (+)-antroquinonol plus insulin still increased both GLUT4 translocation and glucose uptake. Further, (+)-antroquinonol and sitagliptin reduced blood glucose, when given acutely or chronically to DIO mice. Chemically synthesized (+)-antroquinonol exhibits dual effects to ameliorate insulin resistance, by increasing AMPK activity and GLUT4 translocation, along with inhibiting DPP IV activity.

Glucose deprivation promotes activation of mTOR signaling pathway and protein synthesis in rat skeletal muscle cells.

Signaling through mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) has been shown to play a central role in the regulation of skeletal muscle growth induced by a wide range of stimuli either mechanical or metabolic, such as growth factors and amino acids. Here, we demonstrate that mTOR and its downstream target, the ribosomal S6 kinase (p70(S6K)), are activated in L6 myocytes by a short-term glucose deprivation. Such response is specific of skeletal muscle and is likely responsible for the increased rate of protein synthesis and expression of the muscle-specific proteins during recovery from glucose deprivation. Nitric oxide and phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K) are upstream positive regulators of mTOR since their pharmacological inhibition prevents the activation of p70(S6K) in response to glucose deprivation. We therefore propose a model of response to a brief period of glucose deprivation that may occur in skeletal muscle cells during resistance exercise and that may lead to protein accretion when blood flow recovers and all nutrients are again available.

Chemical analysis and antihyperglycemic activity of an original extract from burdock root (Arctium lappa).

In the present study, we obtained a dried burdock root extract (DBRE) rich in caffeoylquinic acids derivatives. We performed the chemical characterization of DBRE and explored its antihyperglycemic potential in both in vitro and in vivo experiments. Chemical analysis of DBRE using LC-MS and GC-MS revealed the presence of a great majority of dicaffeoylquinic acid derivatives (75.4%) of which 1,5-di-O-caffeoyl-4-O-maloylquinic acid represents 44% of the extract. In the in vitro experiments, DBRE is able to increase glucose uptake in cultured L6 myocytes and to decrease glucagon-induced glucose output from rat isolated hepatocytes together with a reduction of hepatic glucose 6-phosphatase activity. DBRE did not increase insulin secretion in the INS-1 pancreatic β-cell line. In vivo, DBRE improves glucose tolerance both after intraperitoneal and oral subchronic administration. In conclusion, our data demonstrate that DBRE constitutes an original set of caffeoylquinic acid derivatives displaying antihyperglycemic properties.

Role of the guanine nucleotide exchange factor in Akt2-mediated plasma membrane translocation of GLUT4 in insulin-stimulated skeletal muscle

The small GTPase Rac1 plays a key role in insulin-promoted glucose uptake mediated by the GLUT4 glucose transporter in skeletal muscle. Our recent studies have demonstrated that the serine/threonine protein kinase Akt2 is critically involved in insulin-dependent Rac1 activation. The purpose of this study is to clarify the role of the guanine nucleotide exchange factor FLJ00068 in Akt2-mediated Rac1 activation and GLUT4 translocation in mouse skeletal muscle and cultured myocytes. Constitutively activated FLJ00068 induced GLUT4 translocation in a Rac1-dependent and Akt2-independent manner in L6 myocytes. On the other hand, knockdown of FLJ00068 significantly reduced constitutively activated Akt2-triggered GLUT4 translocation. Furthermore, Rac1 activation and GLUT4 translocation induced by constitutively activated phosphoinositide 3-kinase were inhibited by knockdown of FLJ00068. In mouse gastrocnemius muscle, constitutively activated FLJ00068 actually induced GLUT4 translocation to the sarcolemma. GLUT4 translocation by constitutively activated FLJ00068 was totally abolished in rac1 knockout mouse gastrocnemius muscle. Additionally, we were successful in detecting the activation of Rac1 following the expression of constitutively activated FLJ00068 in gastrocnemius muscle by immunofluorescence microscopy using an activation-specific probe. Collectively, these results strongly support the notion that FLJ00068 regulates Rac1 downstream of Akt2, leading to the stimulation of glucose uptake in skeletal muscle.

Mechanisms for antidiabetic effect of gingerol in cultured cells and obese diabetic model mice.

There have been studies on health beneficial effects of ginger and its components. However, there still remain certain aspects that are not well defined in their anti-hyperglycemic effects. Our aims were to find evidence of possible mechanisms for antidiabetic action of [6]-gingerol, a pungent component of ginger, employing a rat skeletal muscle-derived cell line, a rat-derived pancreatic β-cell line, and type 2 diabetic model animals. The antidiabetic effect of [6]-gingerol was investigated through studies on glucose uptake in L6 myocytes and on pancreatic β-cell protective ability from reactive oxygen species (ROS) in RIN-5F cells. Its in vivo effect was also examined using obese diabetic db/db mice. [6]-Gingerol increased glucose uptake under insulin absent condition and induced 5' adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase phosphorylation in L6 myotubes. Promotion by [6]-gingerol of glucose transporter 4 (GLUT4) translocation to plasma membrane was visually demonstrated by immunocytochemistry in L6 myoblasts transfected with glut4 cDNA-coding vector. [6]-Gingerol suppressed advanced glycation end product-induced rise of ROS levels in RIN-5F pancreatic β-cells. [6]-Gingerol feeding suppressed the increases in fasting blood glucose levels and improved glucose intolerance in db/db mice. [6]-Gingerol regulated hepatic gene expression of enzymes related to glucose metabolism toward decreases in gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis as well as an increase in glycogenesis, thereby contributing to reductions in hepatic glucose production and hence blood glucose concentrations. These in vitro and in vivo results strongly suggest that [6]-gingerol has antidiabetic potential through multiple mechanisms.

A critical role of the small GTPase Rac1 in Akt2‐mediated GLUT4 translocation in mouse skeletal muscle

Insulin promotes glucose uptake in skeletal muscle by inducing the translocation of the glucose transporter GLUT4 to the plasma membrane. The serine/threonine kinase Akt2 has been implicated as a key regulator of this insulin action. However, the mechanisms whereby Akt2 regulates multiple steps of GLUT4 translocation remain incompletely understood. Recently, the small GTPase Rac1 has been identified as a skeletal muscle-specific regulator of insulin-stimulated glucose uptake. Here, we show that Rac1 is a critical downstream component of the Akt2 pathway in mouse skeletal muscle as well as cultured myocytes. GLUT4 translocation induced by constitutively activated Akt2 was totally dependent on the expression of Rac1 in L6 myocytes. Moreover, we observed the activation of Rac1 when constitutively activated Akt2 was ectopically expressed. Constitutively activated Akt2-triggered Rac1 activation was diminished by knockdown of FLJ00068, a guanine nucleotide exchange factor for Rac1. Knockdown of Akt2, on the other hand, markedly reduced Rac1 activation by a constitutively activated mutant of phosphoinositide 3-kinase. In mouse skeletal muscle, constitutively activated mutants of Akt2 and phosphoinositide 3-kinase, when ectopically expressed, induced GLUT4 translocation. Muscle-specific rac1 knockout markedly diminished Akt2- or phosphoinositide 3-kinase-induced GLUT4 translocation, highlighting a crucial role of Rac1 downstream of Akt2. Taken together, these results strongly suggest a novel regulatory link between Akt2 and Rac1 in insulin-dependent signal transduction leading to glucose uptake in skeletal muscle.

Epigallocatechin gallate counteracts oxidative stress in docosahexaenoxic acid-treated myocytes

Skeletal muscle is a key organ of mammalian energy metabolism, and its mitochondria are multifunction organelles that are targets of dietary bioactive compounds. The goal of this work was to examine the regulation of mitochondrial dynamics, functionality and cell energy parameters using docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) and a combination of both in L6 myocytes. Compounds (at 25μM) were incubated for 4h. Cells cultured with DHA displayed less oxygen consumption with higher ADP/ATP ratio levels concomitant with downregulation of Cox and Ant1 gene expression. The disruption of energetic homeostasis by DHA, increases intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels and decreases mitochondrial membrane potential. The defence mechanism to counteract the excess of ROS production was by the upregulation of Ucp2, Ucp3 and MnSod gene expression. Moreover myocytes cultured with DHA had a higher mitochondrial mass with a higher proportion of large and elongated mitochondria, whereas the fission genes Drp1 and Fiss1 and the fusion gene Mfn2 were downregulated. In myocytes co-incubated with DHA and EGCG, ROS levels and the adenosine diphosphate (ADP)/adenosine triphosphate (ATP) ratio were similar to untreated myocytes and the decrease of oxygen consumption, higher mitochondrial mass and the overexpression of Ucp2 and Ucp3 genes were similar to the DHA-treated cells with also a higher amount of mitochondrial deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), and reduced Drp1 and Fiss1 gene expression levels. In conclusion the addition of EGCG to DHA returned the cells to the control conditions in terms of mitochondrial morphology, energy and redox status, which were unbalanced in the DHA-treated myocytes.

Effects of Inhibition of Serine Palmitoyltransferase (SPT) and Sphingosine Kinase 1 (SphK1) on Palmitate Induced Insulin Resistance in L6 Myotubes

BackgroundThe objective of this study was to examine the effects of short (2 h) and prolonged (18 h) inhibition of serine palmitoyltransferase (SPT) and sphingosine kinase 1 (SphK1) on palmitate (PA) induced insulin resistance in L6 myotubes. MethodsL6 myotubes were treated simultaneously with either PA and myriocin (SPT inhibitor) or PA and Ski II (SphK1inhibitor) for different time periods (2 h and 18 h). Insulin stimulated glucose uptake was measured using radioactive isotope. Expression of insulin signaling proteins was determined using Western blot analyses. Intracellular sphingolipids content [sphinganine (SFA), ceramide (CER), sphingosine (SFO), sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P)] were estimated by HPLC.ResultsOur results revealed that both short and prolonged time of inhibition of SPT by myriocin was sufficient to prevent ceramide accumulation and simultaneously reverse palmitate induced inhibition of insulin-stimulated glucose transport. In contrast, prolonged inhibition of SphK1 intensified the effect of PA on insulin-stimulated glucose uptake and attenuated further the activity of insulin signaling proteins (pGSK3β/GSK3β ratio) in L6 myotubes. These effects were related to the accumulation of sphingosine in palmitate treated myotubes. ConclusionMyriocin is more effective in restoration of palmitate induced insulin resistance in L6 myocytes, despite of the time of SPT inhibition, comparing to SKII (a specific SphK1 inhibitor). Observed changes in insulin signaling proteins were related to the content of specific sphingolipids, namely to the reduction of ceramide. Interestingly, inactivation of SphK1 augmented the effect of PA induced insulin resistance in L6 myotubes, which was associated with further inhibition of insulin stimulated PKB and GSK3β phosphorylation, glucose uptake and the accumulation of sphingosine.

TRIB3 Mediates Glucose-Induced Insulin Resistance via a Mechanism That Requires the Hexosamine Biosynthetic Pathway

In the current study, we investigated the role of tribbles homolog 3 (TRIB3) in glucose-induced insulin resistance and whether the induction of TRIB3 by glucose is dependent on the nutrient-sensing hexosamine biosynthetic pathway (HBP) known to mediate glucose toxicity in diabetes. In diabetic rats, TRIB3 expression in skeletal muscle was increased after 10 days of hyperglycemia, and glycemia and muscle TRIB3 were both restored toward normal by insulin therapy. In L6 myocytes, the induction of TRIB3 by high glucose or glucosamine was reversible upon removal of these substrates. To assess the role of HBP in the induction of TRIB3, we demonstrated that the ability of high glucose to augment TRIB3 expression was prevented by azaserine, an inhibitor of glutamine: fructose-6-phosphate amidotransferase (GFAT), which is the rate-limiting enzyme in the HBP pathway. TRIB3 expression was also substantially stimulated by glucosamine, which bypasses GFAT, accompanied by a decrease in the insulin-stimulated glucose transport rate, and neither response was affected by azaserine. Further, knockdown of TRIB3 inhibited, and TRIB3 overexpression enhanced, the ability of both high glucose and glucosamine to induce insulin resistance. These data provide the mechanistic link between the HBP flux and insulin resistance and point to TRIB3 as a novel target for treatment of glucose-induced insulin resistance.

Daidzein promotes glucose uptake through glucose transporter 4 translocation to plasma membrane in L6 myocytes and improves glucose homeostasis in Type 2 diabetic model mice

Daidzein shows estrogenic, antioxidant and antiandrogenic properties as well as cell cycle regulatory activity. However, the antihyperglycemic effect of daidzein remains to be elucidated. In this study, we investigated the in vitro effect of daidzein on glucose uptake, AMPK phosphorylation and GLUT4 translocation on plasma membrane in L6 myotubes and its in vivo antihyperglycmic effect in obese–diabetic model db/db mice. Daidzein was found to promote glucose uptake, AMPK phosphorylation and GLUT4 translocation by Western blotting analyses in L6 myotubes under a condition of insulin absence. Promotion by daidzein of glucose uptake as well as GLUT4 translocation to plasma membrane by immunocytochemistry was also demonstrated in L6 myoblasts transfected with a GLUT4 cDNA-coding vector. Daidzein (0.1% in the diet) suppressed the rises in the fasting blood glucose, serum total cholesterol levels and homeostasis model assessment index of db/db mice. In addition, daidzein supplementation markedly improved the AMPK phosphorylation in gastrocnemius muscle of db/db mice. Daidzein also suppressed increases in blood glucose levels and urinary glucose excretion in KK-Ay mice, another Type 2 diabetic animal model. These in vitro and in vivo findings suggest that daidzein is preventive for Type 2 diabetes and an antidiabetic phytochemical.

Insulin Activates RSK (p90 Ribosomal S6 Kinase) to Trigger a New Negative Feedback Loop That Regulates Insulin Signaling for Glucose Metabolism

We previously demonstrated that the mTORC1/S6K1 pathway is activated by insulin and nutrient overload (e.g. amino acids (AA)), which leads to the inhibition of the PI3K/Akt pathway via the inhibitory serine phosphorylation of IRS-1, notably on serine 1101 (Ser-1101). However, even in the absence of AA, insulin can still promote IRS-1 Ser-1101 phosphorylation by other kinases that remain to be fully characterized. Here, we describe a new negative regulator of IRS-1, the p90 ribosomal S6 kinase (RSK). Computational analyses revealed that Ser-1101 within IRS-1 falls into the consensus motif of RSK. Moreover, recombinant RSK phosphorylated IRS-1 C-terminal fragment on Ser-1101, which was prevented by mutations of this site or when a kinase-inactive mutant of RSK was used. Using antibodies directed toward the phosphorylation sites located in the activation segment of RSK (Ser-221 or Ser-380), we found that insulin activates RSK in L6 myocytes in the absence of AA overload. Inhibition of RSK using either the pharmacological inhibitor BI-D1870 or after adenoviral expression of a dominant negative RSK1 mutant (RSK1-DN) showed that RSK selectively phosphorylates IRS-1 on Ser-1101. Accordingly, expression of the RSK1-DN mutant in L6 myocytes and FAO hepatic cells improved insulin action on glucose uptake and glucose production, respectively. Furthermore, RSK1 inhibition prevented insulin resistance in L6 myocytes chronically exposed to high glucose and high insulin. These results show that RSK is a novel regulator of insulin signaling and glucose metabolism and a potential mediator of insulin resistance, notably through the negative phosphorylation of IRS-1 on Ser-1101.

Antihyperglycemic effect of equol, a daidzein derivative, in cultured L6 myocytes and ob/ob mice

Molecular mechanisms for the potential antihyperglycemic effect of equol remain to be elucidated. In this study, we investigated the in vitro effect of equol on glucose uptake, AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) phosphorylation, and glucose transporter 4 (GLUT4) translocation to plasma membrane in L6 myocytes, and its in vivo antihyperglycemic effect in obese-diabetic model ob/ob mice. Equol was found to promote glucose uptake, AMPK phosphorylation, and GLUT4 translocation detected by Western blotting analyses in L6 myotubes under a condition of insulin absence. Equol (0.05% in diet) suppressed the rise in serum glucose, cholesterol, triglyceride, and lipid peroxide concentrations and the hepatic triglyceride level as compared with those in the control group. Moreover, equol treatment suppressed the rises in fasting blood glucose level and improved the impaired glucose tolerance in ob/ob mice. Furthermore, equol treatment was demonstrated to improve expression of hepatic gluconeogenesis- and lipogenesis-related genes in terms of glucose and lipid metabolism. The hypoglycemic effect of equol is related to increased GLUT4 translocation to the plasma membrane via AMPK activation. In addition, equol suppresses the fasting blood glucose level and gene expression of hepatic enzymes related to glucose metabolism. These results strongly suggest that equol has antidiabetic potential.

Decreased long‐chain fatty acid oxidation impairs postischemic recovery of the insulin‐resistant rat heart

Diabetic patients with acute myocardial infarction are more likely to die than nondiabetic patients. In the present study we examined the effect of insulin resistance on myocardial ischemia tolerance. Hearts of rats, rendered insulin resistant by high-sucrose feeding, were subjected to ischemia/reperfusion ex vivo. Cardiac power of control hearts from chow-fed rats recovered to 93%, while insulin-resistant hearts recovered only to 80% (P<0.001 vs. control). Unexpectedly, impaired contractile recovery did not result from an impairment of glucose oxidation (576±36 vs. 593±42 nmol/min/g dry weight; not significant), but from a failure to increase and to sustain oxidation of the long-chain fatty acid oleate on reperfusion (1878±56 vs. 2070±67 nmol/min/g dry weight; P<0.05). This phenomenon was due to a reduced ability to transport oleate into mitochondria and associated with a 38-58% decrease in the mitochondrial uncoupling protein 3 (UCP3) levels. Contractile function was rescued by replacing oleate with a medium-chain fatty acid or by restoring UCP3 levels with 24 h of food withdrawal. Lastly, the knockdown of UCP3 in rat L6 myocytes also decreased oleate oxidation by 13-18% following ischemia. Together the results expose UCP3 as a critical regulator of long-chain fatty acid oxidation in the stressed heart postischemia and identify octanoate as an intervention by which myocardial metabolism can be manipulated to improve function of the insulin-resistant heart.

CL316,243, a selective β3-adrenoceptor agonist, activates protein translation through mTOR/p70S6K signaling pathway in rat skeletal muscle cells

Functional β3-adrenoceptors have been found in skeletal muscle where they mediate metabolic oxidation and glucose utilization. Whether β3-adrenoceptors (ARs) also play any role in muscle protein metabolism still remains uncertain. By using rat L6 myocyte cultures, we found that CL316,243, a β3-AR selective agonist, at the concentration of 10(-6) M for 24h, induced a significant increase of skeletal muscle constitutive proteins such as H- and L-myosin and β-actin. Such effect was correlated to an increased expression of phosphorylated p70(S6K) that was significantly inhibited by β3-AR antagonist, SR 59230A, but not by β2-AR antagonist, ICI-118,551. The CL316,243-induced activation of p70(S6K) was markedly inhibited by wortmannin, a PI3K inhibitor, and rapamycin, a specific inhibitor of mTOR, suggesting a critical involvement of the PI3K-mTOR-p70(S6K) signaling cascade in the anabolic response of L6 cells to β3-AR agonist. Taken together, these results suggest that stimulation of β3-AR in skeletal muscle cells activates a specific signaling pathway leading to protein synthesis and, eventually, muscle growth.

Aspalathin improves hyperglycemia and glucose intolerance in obese diabetic ob/ob mice

Although several researches have demonstrated that rooibos extract has hypoglycemic effect, the role of aspalathin, a main polyphenol in the extract, remains unclear. Our aims were to find specific mechanisms for anti-diabetic action of aspalathin employing a rat skeletal muscle-derived cell line (L6 myocytes) and a rat-derived pancreatic β-cell line (RIN-5F cells) and to investigate its effect in type 2 diabetic model ob/ob mice. We investigated in vitro the effect of aspalathin on the glucose metabolism through the studies on molecular mechanisms of glucose uptake using cultured L6 myotubes. We also measured the antioxidative ability of aspalathin against reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated by artificial advanced glycation end product (AGE) in RIN-5F cells. In vivo, ob/ob mice were fed 0.1 % aspalathin-containing diet for 5 weeks, and the effect of aspalathin on fasting blood glucose level, glucose intolerance, and hepatic gene expression was studied. Aspalathin dose dependently increased glucose uptake by L6 myotubes and promoted AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) phosphorylation. Aspalathin enhanced GLUT4 translocation to plasma membrane in L6 myoblasts and myotubes. In RIN-5F cells, aspalathin suppressed AGE-induced rises in ROS. In vivo, aspalathin significantly suppressed the increase in fasting blood glucose levels and improved glucose intolerance. Furthermore, aspalathin decreased expression of hepatic genes related to gluconeogenesis and lipogenesis. Hypoglycemic effect of aspalathin is related to increased GLUT4 translocation to plasma membrane via AMPK activation. In addition, aspalathin reduces the gene expression of hepatic enzymes related to glucose production and lipogenesis. These results strongly suggest that aspalathin has anti-diabetic potential.

CAMP/Protein Kinase A Activates Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator for ATP Release from Rat Skeletal Muscle during Low pH or Contractions

We have shown that cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) is involved in ATP release from skeletal muscle at low pH. These experiments investigate the signal transduction mechanism linking pH depression to CFTR activation and ATP release, and evaluate whether CFTR is involved in ATP release from contracting muscle. Lactic acid treatment elevated interstitial ATP of buffer-perfused muscle and extracellular ATP of L6 myocytes: this ATP release was abolished by the non-specific CFTR inhibitor, glibenclamide, or the specific CFTR inhibitor, CFTRinh-172, suggesting that CFTR was involved, and by inhibition of lactic acid entry to cells, indicating that intracellular pH depression was required. Muscle contractions significantly elevated interstitial ATP, but CFTRinh-172 abolished the increase. The cAMP/PKA pathway was involved in the signal transduction pathway for CFTR-regulated ATP release from muscle: forskolin increased CFTR phosphorylation and stimulated ATP release from muscle or myocytes; lactic acid increased intracellular cAMP, pCREB and PKA activity, whereas IBMX enhanced ATP release from myocytes. Inhibition of PKA with KT5720 abolished lactic-acid- or contraction-induced ATP release from muscle. Inhibition of either the Na+/H+-exchanger (NHE) with amiloride or the Na+/Ca2+-exchanger (NCX) with SN6 or KB-R7943 abolished lactic-acid- or contraction-induced release of ATP from muscle, suggesting that these exchange proteins may be involved in the activation of CFTR. Our data suggest that CFTR-regulated release contributes to ATP release from contracting muscle in vivo, and that cAMP and PKA are involved in the activation of CFTR during muscle contractions or acidosis; NHE and NCX may be involved in the signal transduction pathway.