L2 Motivation Research Articles

Research on Chinese High-School Students’ English Learning Motivation from the Self System Perspective

L2 motivation has been proven to be an important factor for second language learning. The newly proposed framework of the L2 Motivational Self System by Dörnyei has offered researchers valuable insights into L2 motivation. However, few studies have been conducted on the L2 motivation of the English learners from a self perspective in the Chinese context. In consideration of the research gap and the distinctiveness of the Chinese high-school learners, this research aimed to explore L2 motivation among Chinese high-school students from the Self System perspective. A mixed methods approach of the questionnaire with follow-up semi-structured interview was utilized in the study. 128 students (randomly selected) from 4 high-schools in Wuhan in central China filled in the questionnaire survey, and six of them joined the interview. The results of the study showed that: 1) the key component of the L2 Motivational Self System, the Ideal L2 Self cannot be the reinterpretation of integrativeness in Chinese educational contexts; 2) among three dimensions of the Self system, the language learning experience had the highest correlation with learners’ motivation, followed by the Ideal L2 Self, with the Ought-to L2 Self produced the weakest correlation. Based on findings, some practical implications for English teaching are revealed. Keywords: L2 Motivational Self System, English language learning, Chinese high-school students, integrativeness, the Ideal L2 Self, the Ought-to L2 Self, language learning experience DOI : 10.7176/JEP/10-26-07 Publication date :September 30 th 2019

Perceptions of Willingness to Communicate Orally in English among Iranian PhD Students

Willingness to Communicate (WTC) in second Language (L2) has received substantial consideration in modern language research and instruction. This study intends to investigate how oral L2 WTC of a group of EFL Iranian PhD students in a public university in Malaysia has changed during their stay in this country and what factors have resulted in their willingness to communicate. A qualitative case study method was implemented to obtain information from 8 participants through semi-structured interview as the main method, followed by focus group discussion and solicited journal diaries of the participants. The analyses of data derived from the first research question yielded five major themes: lack of exposure to L2 oral communication, cultural values, low L2 self-confidence, L2 extrinsic motivation, and enabling behaviors. Analysis of the second research question revealed six major themes as: raised awareness, cultural background, personality, exposure to L2 oral communication, extrinsic L2 motivation, and increased L2 self-confidence. The findings of the study concluded that rare exposure to English oral communication in Iran resulted in having little practice of English language in authentic settings that led to low L2 WTC among the respondents of the study before coming to Malaysia. Besides, the respondents suffered from lack of L2 WTC upon arrival to Malaysia. However, by understanding their deficiencies and importance of L2 oral communication, they gradually changed their attitude toward L2 oral communication and tried to improve it. This study also provides theoretical and practical implications for designing teaching methods to maximize language learners’ L2 WTC in the classroom that leads to their L2 oral communication improvement.

Do country stereotypes influence language learning motivation? A study among foreign language learners in Malaysia


 It has been acknowledged in research literature that stereotypes about a target language country held by language learners influence the students’ motivation to learn a foreign language (L2 motivation). However, there is a lack of studies that link explorations of these stereotypes and L2 motivation in a single research project. This mixed-methods study addressed this gap in research literature. It examined relationships between endogenous stereotypes about target language countries and L2 motivation using a sample of 194 students learning foreign languages in a major public university in Malaysia. These languages included French, German, Italian, Portuguese (European and Brazilian varieties), Russian and Spanish. The data were collected through a questionnaire survey. One open-ended question sought the students’ mental images of the target language countries; two thermometer-type scales assessed the students’ general attitudes toward the target language countries and people and 16 closed-ended statements with attached Likert-type scales assessed their L2 motivation. The findings from the qualitative strand of the analysis revealed that the respondents had distinct and predominantly positive images of each of the target language countries. This allowed making a tentative proposition that the country stereotypes would have a positive relationship with the students’ L2 motivation, especially the integrative orientation. Results of the statistical analyses in the quantitative phase indicated that the relationship between the country stereotypes and L2 motivation was the strongest in the case of the integrative orientation. The article concludes with a brief discussion of implications that can be drawn from this study.

“This language still motivates me!” Advanced language students and their L2 motivation

The article focuses on written narratives of 51 Finnish university students who study German, Swedish or French as their major or one of their minors at an advanced level. The study aims to find what keeps these students motivated to study their L2. The data have been analyzed using analysis of narratives (Polkinghorne, 1995). Dörnyei’s (2009a, 2009b, 2014) L2 motivational self system (L2MSS), built around the concepts of ideal L2 self, ought-to L2 self and L2 learning experience, is used as the theoretical framework. The results indicate that perceived social pressure (ought-to L2 self) may be important when the study decision is made, but its importance diminishes during the studies. Instead, a future L2-related vision (ideal L2 self) as well as peers, teachers, course contents, and learning atmosphere (L2 learning experience) become increasingly important during the studies. The role of the emotional dimension of possible selves seems to be central in developing and preserving study motivation. At the end of the article, some implications of the results for higher education programs of languages other than English (LOTEs) are presented.

중국어 학습동기 변화에 관한 일기연구: 행위이론 관점에서

Despite the extensive research on second language learning motivation, very little research has been conducted with Chinese learning motivation and the focus of the research has been limited mainly to identifying types of motivation. Considering the popularity of Chinese as a second language and the lack of research on Chinese learning motivation, the study aims to illustrate the process of motivational changes in learning Chinese from the sociocultual perspective. The data were collected from the researcher’s own autobiographic diary written while she was learning Chinese. Using the framework of an Activity Theory, the data were analyzed to find factors affecting the participant’s motivatonal changes. The findings indicate that the participant’s motivation was affected by dynamic interaction of mediational tools, relationships within the community, and different roles of the learner. The findings imply that the level of motivation is affected by how the learner resolves the tensions among those factors to move forward to the goal of becoming a multilingual speaker. The study may provide a methodological insight into L2 motivation research by analyzing and describing a longitudinal Chinese learning experience from a first-person point of view.

Human resource policy makers’, teachers’, and adult learners’ views on the impact of context- and teacher-generated autonomy on adult learners’ L2 motivation: Interview studies in Hungarian corporate contexts

Human resource policy makers’, teachers’, and adult learners’ views on the impact of context- and teacher-generated autonomy on adult learners’ L2 motivation: Interview studies in Hungarian corporate contexts

Enriching the Construct Structure of L2 Reading Motivation: Learners’ Attitudes in Focus

The systematic study of second language (L2) reading motivation has been a more recent topic in L2 motivation literature. The purpose of the current study was to highlight the role of L2 reading attitudes in developing the construct of L2 reading motivation. Participants of the study included 192 Iranian EFL learners at B1 level of language proficiency corresponding to the intermediate level. The data related to L2 reading attitudes and L2 reading motivation of the participants were collected through administering the L2 reading attitude and L2 reading motivation questionnaires, respectively. The items from the two measures were mixed and then factor analyzed. The results of statistical analyses revealed that a six-factor solution was the best way to conceptualize the L2 reading motivation construct among the Iranian EFL learners. The factors included both L2 motivational (reading interest) and L2 attitudinal items. This construct of L2 reading motivation was found more effective in predicting the reading achievement of the learners when compared with the reading motivation construct lacking the L2 reading attitude items.

Exploring complexity in L2 and L3 motivational systems: a dynamic systems theory perspective

ABSTRACT Drawing on qualitative research, this study explores (1) how Hong Kong university students’ existing L1 and L2 affect their learning motivation for an L3 and (2) how an individual’s L2 motivation changes because of learning an L3, from a dynamic systems theory perspective. Eight undergraduate students from Hong Kong participated in this study. They were all native Cantonese speakers with English as their second language (L2) and Japanese as their third language (L3) at different proficiency levels. The students attended two rounds of extensive semi-structured interviews that focused on their sources and changes of motivation, their own perceptions of their L2 and L3 selves, their individualised methods and experiences in learning the two languages and their understanding of their cultural identities. The findings reveal the complexity of multilingual learners’ motivational dynamics in learning L1, L2 and L3. Furthermore, the influence of an L3 on the existing L2 motivation is shown to be an intriguing but under-investigated research area. Our results lend support to the newly proposed dual-motivation system theory and should contribute to a more nuanced understanding of multilingual learning.

L2 motivation in ESP and EGP courses: An investigation of L2 motivational selves among learners of English in Saudi Arabia

This paper investigates the L2 motivation of Saudi university students in ESP (English for Specific Purposes) and EGP (English for General Purposes) courses. One of the common arguments about ESP courses suggests that they are more likely to generate higher levels of motivation than other types of English courses (i.e., EGP courses). Some scholars (e.g., Basturkmen, 2010; Dudley-Evans & St John, 1998; Hutchinson & Waters, 1987) hold this view, asserting that ESP courses are more relevant to learners’ needs and interests, which increases their motivation. However, none of these claims are based on empirical research; the present study aims to fill this gap. Using Dörnyei’s (2005, 2009) L2 Motivational Self System, 4,043 students enrolled in ESP and EGP courses at four Saudi universities completed an online survey. The analysis showed a significant relationship between learners’ motivation and their attended English course. The ESP group had higher ideal L2 selves and more positive attitudes towards the L2 learning experience than the EGP group, whereas the ought-to L2 selves were not significantly different. In addition, a multiple regression model was designed, and indicated that the two self-constructs had an impact on participants’ L2 achievements, either positively or negatively.

Developing the ideal multilingual self in the era of global English: a case in the Japanese context

ABSTRACT While there has been a surge of publication on L2 motivation studies, not much has been investigated regarding motivation to learn languages other than English. As a longitudinal interview study, the present study investigated two cases of Japanese university students focusing on the development of ideal L2/L3 self and ideal multilingual self. The results indicated that the development of ideal L2/L3 self was closely related to that of ideal professional self, and an elaborate ideal L2/L3 self helped learners persist and achieve high competence in the target languages. Furthermore, reading skills were considered especially important among the interviewees, which was not emphasised in contexts where learners have daily contact with the target languages. One of the interviewees was not negatively impacted by English and becoming multilingual, which seemed to be helped by a range of factors including ideal L2/L3 self, strong intrinsic motivation, and rich life experiences. The case demonstrated the possibility of developing an ideal multilingual self and becoming multilingual even in an era when English functions as a global language. Based on the results, theoretical and pedagogical implications that might be particularly helpful in foreign language contexts are discussed.

Nonlinear Dynamic Motivation-oriented Taxonomy of L2 Strategies based on Complex Dynamics Systems Theory

The need for a revisited framework of strategies in keeping with the nonlinear dynamic nature of motivational factors in L2 teaching led to the introduction of a taxonomy of nonlinear dynamic motivation-based strategies (NDMSs). This psycho-socio-cultural template suggests discovering dynamic motivational factors at individual level and integrating them into multiple parallel groups within a learner group instead of creating them which is a traditionally established function of motivational strategies to impose superficial cohesion on a learner group without catering for chaotic, emergent and dynamic individual motivational factors. Given the heterogeneity, dynamicity, and nonlinearity of the motivational factors at individual level, the first implication of the study is that NDMSs have the potential to activate identified motivational factors toward an adaptive and autonomous L2 motivation state regardless of their homogeneity or heterogeneity. Secondly, NDMSs have the potential to enable teachers to recruit the learning energy (i.e. motivation) from every member of the group via a dynamic and nonlinear set of motivational strategies instead of imposing a preset set of motivational strategies to all members of the group to elicit/facilitate/encourage equal performance from a motivationally heterogeneous learner group under the pretext of generating a cohesive learner group. Keywords: L2 motivation, nonlinear dynamic motivation-based strategies (NDMSs), complex dynamics systems theory (CDST)

L2 Motivation and Spirituality in College ELT: Changing L2 Learning and L2 Self With a Self-Determined Message

L2 Motivation and Spirituality in College ELT: Changing L2 Learning and L2 Self With a Self-Determined Message

NONLINEAR DYNAMIC MOTIVATION-ORIENTED TAXONOMY OF L2 STRATEGIES BASED ON COMPLEX DYNAMICS SYSTEMS THEORY

The need for a revisited framework of strategies in keeping with the nonlinear dynamic nature of motivational factors in L2 teaching led to the introduction of a taxonomy of nonlinear dynamic motivation-based strategies (NDMSs). This psycho-socio-cultural template suggests discovering dynamic motivational factors at individual level and integrating them into multiple parallel groups within a learner group instead of creating them which is a traditionally established function of motivational strategies to impose superficial cohesion on a learner group without catering for chaotic, emergent and dynamic individual motivational factors. Given the heterogeneity, dynamicity, and nonlinearity of the motivational factors at individual level, the first implication of the study is that NDMSs have the potential to activate identified motivational factors toward an adaptive and autonomous L2 motivation state regardless of their homogeneity or heterogeneity. Secondly, NDMSs have the potential to enable teachers to recruit the learning energy (i.e. motivation) from every member of the group via a dynamic and nonlinear set of motivational strategies instead of imposing a preset set of motivational strategies to all members of the group to elicit/facilitate/encourage equal performance from a motivationally heterogeneous learner group under the pretext of generating a cohesive learner group. Keywords: L2 motivation, nonlinear dynamic motivation-based strategies (NDMSs), complex dynamics systems theory (CDST)

Possible Teaching Selves: The Challenges of Becoming a Bilingual Teacher

Recent research on L2 motivation and language learning psychology has shifted its focus from the learner to the educator and drawn the figure of the language teacher into the limelight for the first time (cf. Kubanyiova, 2012; Mercer & Kostolous, 2018). This paper presents some of the qualitative insights into the L2 motivation of two undergraduate teacher trainees who, thanks to a recent impulse for bilingual education in Spain, have been faced with an expected L2 certification proviso in order to graduate and teach. The qualitative study reported here, part of a larger (N 520) mixed methods study employing the lens of the L2 Motivational Self System (Dörnyei, 2005, 2009) to examine L2 learner profiles in Spain, attempted to identify both ideal and ought L2 selves in the discourse of the two interviewees. To complement the possible self view of these L2 learners, Lave and Wenger’s (1991) concept of ‘legitimate peripheral participation was also employed. The interview data provides insight into the effects of a decision to implement a bilingual education system with little apparent empathy for the time and effort required by undergraduates to comply with the L2 certification requirements. Through this study, we see how these two participants struggle to conflate ideal teaching selves with ought L2 teaching selves.

The impact of semester-abroad experiences on post-sojourn L2 motivation

Numerous studies have examined sojourners’ L2 motivation during their stay abroad. Much remains unknown about the impact of study abroad (SA) experiences on their L2 motivation after they return to the home environment. This study tracked the English learning motivation of three Chinese university students from immediately after their semester-long exchange program in an English-speaking country until six months after the sojourn. The participants were requested to complete a questionnaire and took part in an interview immediately following their re-entry and another interview six months later. The participants’ post-sojourn English learning motivation was influenced by their L2 selves and the context they were situated in. The motivational capacity of SA experiences was manifested in its profound impact on the participants’ ideal L2 self-images. Satisfactory SA experiences contributed to an ideal L2 self with higher L2 proficiency and international posture, whereas unsatisfactory experiences led to a lessening role of L2 in the participants’ future work and life. The findings also reveal that the participants’ understandings of both their positive and negative SA experiences became fossilized after the sojourn. Some practical implications were discussed for higher education institutions to optimize the post-sojourn motivational impact of SA programs.

Editorial

Due to the emergence of the self in foreign/second language (L2) motivation theory and research following the introduction of the L2 Motivational Self System (L2MSS) (Dörnyei, 2005, 2009), the past decade has witnessed a surge of attention devoted to the two self dimensions: the Ideal L2 Self, and the Ought-to L2 self of the model (Boo, Dörnyei, & Ryan, 2015). The third core component, however, the L2 Learning Experience has become undeservedly marginalized. We think that such relative neglect has been brought about by two phenomena. On the one hand, the L2 Learning Experience, has so far been underconceptualized, and, as such, its intangible, amorphous nature has undermined its applicability in research on a similar scale that a more elaborate theorization of the other two future self-guides has enabled. On the other hand, by incorporating Markus and Nurius’ (1986) possible selves theory into L2 motivation research, Dörnyei was able to import adaptable and novel concepts to the field, which set the course of the research agenda for years to come.

Weaving webs of connection: Empathy, perspective taking, and students’ motivation

L2 motivation is a relational phenomenon, shaped by teacher responsiveness (Lamb, 2017; Ushioda, 2009). Little, however, is known about the practices in which responsiveness is manifested. Drawing on research from the culturally responsive teaching paradigm (Petrone, 2013), and highlighting the role of empathy and perspective taking (Warren, 2018), the aim of this ethnographic case study of two lessons with a focus on poetry is to develop a relational understanding of the evolution of motivation. Analyses reveal how perspective taking has instructional and interactional dimensions, and how connections between lesson content and funds of knowledge with origins in students’ interactions with popular culture bring additional layers of meaning to learning. It is suggested that while connections that arise through perspective taking practices shape students’ in-the-moment motivational responses, they also accumulate in ways that lead to enduring motivational dispositions.

Affective variables and willingness to communicate of EFL learners in in-class, out-of-class, and digital contexts

This study explores the relationship between affective variables (L2 self-confidence, L2 anxiety, L2 motivation, and grit) and willingness to communicate (WTC) in in-class, out-of-class, and digital contexts. Drawing on a quantitative research design and a sample of 261 Taiwanese EFL undergraduate students, two major findings were identified. First, students with higher levels of grit and L2 confidence had higher L2 WTC in all three communicative settings. It suggests that 1) if EFL students remain steadfast and persistent in learning and using English despite setbacks, and 2) if they are confident about communicating in English, they tend to initiate English communication in both digital and offline settings. Second, lack of L2 anxiety was a significant predictor of students’ L2 WTC in non-digital environments (in-class and out-of-class contexts), but not in the digital setting. This suggests that contemporary EFL students may feel more comfortable with digital methods of communicating than conventional offline approaches, whether they use L1 or L2. The study also implies that digital environments may provide social support and additional psychological benefits, which potentially contribute to creating less L2 anxiety-provoking environment for EFL students. Drawn from these findings, pedagogical implications for ELT are also provided.

A Pedagogical Attempt to Promote Japanese College EFL Learners’ Self-Growth

Drawing on Ushioda’s (2009) L2 motivation theory “a person-in-context relational view (PCRV)”, this study provides relevant ELT methodology utilizing a semester-long core English course for Japanese college EFL learners (N = 63), involving the underpinnings of spirituality (e.g., Baker, 2003). The language instruction aimed at the organic integration of identity, inner spirituality, and relevant L2 practice and self-expressive L2 use, all related to successful self-development of the EFL learners. The objectives were three-fold: to examine (1) the effects of the employed teaching methodology, (2) the emergence of relevant L2 learning methods, and (3) the enhancement of self- and identity-focused L2 use capabilities. These points were analyzed respectively with focus on the aspects of: (a) PCRV, (b) spirituality, and (c) target language acquisition (TLA) for an authentic self-expressiveness. Four self-focused stages and spirituality-laden tasks were administered, and relevant questionnaires were prepared. The research findings of t-tests for pre- and post- collected data (Weeks 1 and 15) yielded significant results for (1), (2), and (3) with respect to the three aspects. The participants’ open-ended statements (Week 15) reported perceptible self-growth and relevant L2 practice, including positive self-image as a person, followed by the role of English and new impressions of the English language.

Affective factors, virtual intercultural experiences, and L2 willingness to communicate in in-class, out-of-class, and digital settings

This quantitative study examines whether and to what extent affective factors (i.e. motivation, self-confidence, risk-taking, L2 speaking anxiety, and grit) and virtual intercultural experiences are linked to willingness to communicate in a second language (L2 WTC) in in-class, out-of-class, and digital settings. Participants included 176 Korean undergraduate and graduate students of English as a foreign language (EFL). After adjusting for demographic factors, hierarchical regression analyses revealed three major results: first, those with higher levels of L2 motivation and grit as well as a lower level of L2 speaking anxiety had higher L2 WTC inside the classroom. Second, students who majored in English and had higher levels of L2 self-confidence and risk-taking had higher L2 WTC outside the classroom. Third, individuals who were younger, had a higher level of L2 self-confidence and engaged more frequently in virtual intercultural experiences had higher L2 WTC in digital settings. Results suggest that demographic and affective variables as well as involvement in virtual intercultural activities play distinct roles in influencing EFL students’ WTC in three different L2 communication contexts. Based on these findings, this study provides pedagogical suggestions for L2 practitioners.