L2 Fluency Research Articles

A cross-language study on feedforward and feedback control of voice intensity in Chinese–English bilinguals

AbstractSpeech production requires the combined efforts of feedforward and feedback control, but it remains unclear whether the relative weighting of feedforward and feedback control is organized differently between the first language (L1) and the second language (L2). In the present study, a group of Chinese–English bilinguals named pictures in their L1 and L2, while being exposed to multitalker noise. Experiment 1 compared feedforward control between L1 and L2 speech production by examining intensity increases in response to a masking noise (90 dB SPL). Experiment 2 compared feedback control between L1 and L2 speech production by examining intensity increases in response to a weak (30 dB SPL) or strong noise (60 dB SPL). We also examined a potential relationship between L2 fluency and the relative weighting of feedforward and feedback systems. The results indicated that L2 speech production relies less on feedforward control relative to L1, exhibiting attenuated Lombard effects to the masking noise. In contrast, L2 speech production relies more on feedback control than L1, producing larger Lombard effects to the weak and strong noise. The relative weighting of feedforward and feedback control is dynamically changed as second language learning progresses.

Oral fluency in a second language: A research agenda for the next ten years

AbstractThis paper reviews how the construct of oral fluency in a second language (L2) has been defined and researched over the last twenty-five years. The emerging picture is somewhat kaleidoscopic, as domains of cognitive, social, individual and linguistic influences on L2 speech have been opened up for study. L2 fluency research presents a wealth of directions for future exploration, five of which have been laid out here as an achievable, though not comprehensive, agenda for the coming decade. Four of these studies focus on the relationship between variables such as perceived fluency, utterance fluency, idiomaticity, task familiarity, vocabulary size and learner self-reflection, while the fifth focusses on supporting fluency development in the L2 classroom. As an aid to prospective researchers, the five studies are laid out in practical detail, together with suggestions on how these might need to be altered to fit the local context in which the research is undertaken.

The Longitudinal Study of L2 Fluency Acquisition to Chinese and English Learners of Korean in the Early Stage

The Longitudinal Study of L2 Fluency Acquisition to Chinese and English Learners of Korean in the Early Stage

Home language environment and children's second language acquisition: the special status of input from older siblings.

Previous research suggests that increased second language (L2) input at home may not support L2 acquisition in children from migrant backgrounds. In drawing this conclusion, existing work has largely aggregated across family members. This study contrasts the effect of L2 input from older siblings with that from mothers. Participants were 113 child L2 learners of English (mean age = 5;10 [range 4;10-7;2]; mean exposure to L2 in school = 16.7 months [range 2-48 months]). All children had at least one older sibling. Using hierarchical linear regression modelling with controls for age, non-verbal reasoning and phonological short-term memory, we found that greater L2 input from siblings - but not mothers - was associated with stronger L2 abilities in narrative macrostructure, inflectional morphology, and vocabulary. Increased cumulative exposure to the L2 at school and greater maternal L2 fluency were also positively related to children's L2 inflectional morphology and vocabulary scores.

PREDICTING L2 FLUENCY FROM L1 FLUENCY BEHAVIOR

AbstractThe article reports on the findings of a study investigating the relationship between first language (L1) and second language (L2) fluency behavior. Drawing on data collected from Turkish learners of English, the study also addresses the question of whether proficiency level mediates the relationship, if any. The data were coded for a range of breakdown, repair, speed, and composite measures. Language proficiency was measured by means of two tests: Oxford Placement Test (OPT) and an Elicited Imitation Task (EIT). The results show that some breakdown and repair measures were positively correlated in L1 and L2, but no correlations were observed for articulation rate and speech rate. The relationships were not mediated by proficiency level. Regression analyses show that a number of models predicted L2 fluency. L1 fluency contributed significantly to models predicting pausing behavior; EIT scores predicted L2 speech rate; and L1 fluency and OPT scores predicted L2 repair and mid-clause pauses. The important implications of the findings for fluency research and second language pedagogy are discussed.

The influence of pre-task planning on speed and breakdown fluency

The main purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of pre-task planning on L2 fluency performance by measuring the temporal variables. Performing a picture description task, two groups of thirty-seven students were given 10 minutes of planning time and no planning time before the performance, respectively. The temporal fluency variables are extracted by means of the PRAAT speech analysis program in order to be automatically measured for evaluation purposes. Fluency is operationalized as speed fluency (i.e. speech rate and articulation rate) and breakdown fluency (i.e. average pause duration and number of pauses). The results indicate that no significant difference is found when comparing the non-planning and planning condition for each temporal variable. Presumably, the chosen task type containing highly frequent lexemes does not seem to impose increased conscious attention on the part of the more proficient speakers, and thus the formulation and articulation can, to a high degree, run in parallel. Based on the observed results, a modified task design is proposed, i.e. guided pre-task planning directed to attend to less frequent formulae as vocabulary or lexical items for everyday contexts, having a clear potential as a pedagogic device, aiming at activating relatively underused vocabulary and promoting ultimate fluency in the temporal sense.

Cut-offs and co-occurring gestures: Similarities between speakers’ first and second languages

Abstract This paper explores cut-offs in the oral narrations of Spanish native speakers in their mother tongue (L1), and in their language-under-study, English (L2). Fluency in the L2 varies with proficiency, and so cut-offs offer a possible means of evaluating this. However, there are certain aspects of fluency which might be common to the L1 and the L2, suggesting that the L1 and L2 share cognitive factors that lead to similar disfluency patterns. To determine if cut-offs are reliable markers of L2 fluency, independent of those occurring in the L1, we assessed the cut-off patterns in the L1 and L2 narrations of this group of speakers, following a multimodal approach. We observed similarities in both languages, potentially indicating that speakers use comparable cut-off-gesture patterns in the L1 and L2. We conclude that using speakers’ cut-offs in an L2 to gauge proficiency is meaningful only if the L1 cut-off behaviour is known.

The Acquisition of Italian Discourse Markers as a Function of Studying Abroad

This paper investigates the effect of a period of study in Italy on the use of discourse markers (DMs) by Belgian–Dutch learners of Italian as a second language (L2). We recorded dialogical exchanges between 8 Belgian–Dutch learners of L2 Italian, before and after an Erasmus exchange of 6 months in an Italian university. The results of our investigation reveal that, both pre- and post-Erasmus, the most used DMs are si ‘yes’, ok, allora ‘so, then’, quindi ‘then, therefore’, dunque ‘therefore’, be’ ‘well’. Our research also shows that the main effect of the period of study abroad is the increased variation of the pragmatic functions of DMs used by the L2 speakers. Whereas before the Erasmus, DMs are employed almost exclusively with an interactional function, after the Erasmus their spectrum of functions is broaden to cognitive and the meta-discursive functions. Interestingly, we also observe that after the Erasmus, some DMs are used with different non-target functions: we argue that these uses must be analyzed as interferences with the learners’ language background. We conclude the paper with some remarks on the effect of the period of study abroad on L2 fluency, analyzing the clustering of DMs with filled pauses.

Exploring the Dynamic Nature of Second Language Listeners’ Perceived Fluency: A Mixed‐Methods Approach

Despite the status of English as the lingua franca of the world (Seidlhofer, 2011) and the growing number of English as a second language (L2) users (Pennycook, 2017), researchers have mostly investigated L2‐accented English based on native speakers’ perceptions. In particular, a number of previous studies have looked at native English speakers’ perceptions of fluency (e.g., Bosker, Pinget, Quene, Sanders, & de Jong, 2013). Only a limited number of studies have examined L2 speakers’ perceptions of the same phenomenon (for a rare exception, see Rossiter, 2009). Therefore, we know very little about how L2 users conceptualize fluency, and what their subjective conceptualizations of fluency are. Thus, the current study took the first step to investigate the factors affecting L2 users’ intuitive perceptions of L2 fluency using an explanatory sequential mixed‐methods design.

The effect of task repetition on the patterns of interaction of ESL children

Abstract Research on collaborative work has explored the benefits of task repetition (TR) for L2 development. TR has been claimed to improve L2 complexity, accuracy and fluency, provide opportunities for feedback, and increase learners’ engagement in their L2, as reported in studies that have explored patterns of interaction. Research on this topic, particularly that undertaken with EFL children as participants, has gained attention in recent years. However, there is a dearth of literature regarding the impact of TR on the patterns of interaction and on the opportunities to receive feedback for child ESL learners. The aim of the present study is to address this gap examining the interactions of 28 young ESL learners who completed the same spot-the-difference task twice within a 3-month time frame. The findings showed that the majority of pairs represented patterns of interaction with low levels of mutuality (i.e. engagement) and upon TR these patterns barely varied. However, regardless of learners’ patterns of interaction, these ESL learners provided feedback and negotiated during task-based interaction, especially the collaborative pairs.

L2 Vocabulary Knowledge and L2 Listening Comprehension: A Structural Equation Model

The current study investigates how second language (L2) listening comprehension is associated with three dimensions of L2 vocabulary knowledge: size, depth, and fluency. Vocabulary knowledge tests administered to 290 participants measured L2 auditory vocabulary size, depth, and fluency. Afterward, participants took an International English Language Testing System (IELTS) listening test that measured L2 listening comprehension. Using a structural equation modeling technique, we found that all three dimensions of vocabulary knowledge are significant predictors of L2 listening comprehension. Size of auditory vocabulary in the L2 has the strongest predictive power over L2 listening comprehension. The results of the current study offer useful pedagogical implications for improving L2 listening comprehension.

Simultaneous versus Consecutive Movie Narration: An Attempt at Boosting L2 Oral Communication Skills

Fluency in one of the most significant components of oral communication, and in the communication era, when it is essential for almost everyone to master speaking skills in foreign languages, especially English, this component needs to be put in the spotlight. Diverse steps have been taken in the world of SLA to promote learners' fluency in L2, yet there is still much to do in this arena. The present study aims at probing the effectiveness of simultaneous movie narrations as a new fluency-booster strategy. To this end, 66 students of IELTS speaking preparation classes in an institute in Tehran, Iran were selected and put into 2 groups of 33 (each group distributed in 3 classes). The homogeneity of the sample was checked by a mock IETLS test obtained from Cambridge IELTS 10 (Cambridge Local Examinations syndicate ( 2015) and through a MANOVA. The treatments contained 24 hours of training and practice on IELTS speaking strategies, offered to them in 16 sessions of 90 minutes. The first half of each session was allocated to teaching and practice on the institute’s main course book – Focusing on IELTS - Listening and Speaking Skills (Thurlow & O'Sullivan, 2011). In the second 45 minutes, learners of both groups were exposed to the same 10-minute movie extracts, and practiced their narration and speaking skills in pair-group activities. Learners of the consecutive narration group narrated the movie plot and actions with delay (consecutively) whereas those of the simultaneous narration group narrated them simultaneously as the movie was being played. The results of the statistical analysis of the posttest highlighted that simultaneous narration group learners outperformed those of the consecutive narration group in terms of oral communication skills. The findings of this study have pedagogical implications for English teachers, teacher trainers, exam preparation teachers and simultaneous interpreters’ trainer.

Variables affecting the maintenance of L2 proficiency and fluency four years post-study abroad

AbstractThis study explored the attrition / maintenance of second language (L2) proficiency by examining longitudinally the oral skills of a group of L2 French and L2 Spanish participants (n = 33) four years after study abroad, and three years after completing an undergraduate degree in languages. Multiple regressions were conducted to determine the extent to which language contact / use and attained proficiency at the end of study abroad could predict changes in fluency and oral proficiency. Results demonstrated that those variables that improved significantly during study abroad (e.g., speech rate) were maintained four years later. The amount of target language contact / use played a role in maintenance of aspects of fluency such as speech rate and frequency of silent pauses, whereas proficiency attained at the end of study abroad played a role in the use of corrections. Both language contact / use and proficiency attained are important variables in the long-term maintenance of overall proficiency.

The Relationship between Prosody and Reading in English Utterances

This study aims to investigate the relationship between prosody and reading tasks in Korean English learners. The main research question is whether Korean English learners benefit from the reading tasks serving as pronunciation practice in terms of speech fluency and intelligibility. Although it is controversial to define speech fluency and intelligibility respectively, this study attempts to address this question by examining speech rate and pauses. Ten Korean college students and three American college students voluntarily participated in this study and were asked to read the given script. After the first recording session, Korean speakers were provided with audio files of three English native speakers, and were directed to listen and repeat the audio files. They were asked to return and participate in the second recording session. This study examined speech rate, pause frequency, pause location, and pause duration, and compared the results collected before and after the listen-and-repeat practice. This study found that speech rate increased with practice in most of the Korean speakers. In addition, it turned out that the absolute pause frequency and duration did not correlate with speech rate. More importantly, the reading tasks seemed to help Korean speakers to recognize prosodic phrasing and to utilize phrasing and pauses more appropriately, which guarantees more fluent speech. It implies that appropriate pausing may improve speech fluency and intelligibility in L2.

Language proficiency does not modulate executive control in older bilinguals

ABSTRACTWe examined if language proficiency modulates performance in tasks that measure executive control in older Telugu-English bilinguals (n = 50, mean age = 57.15 years). We administered numerical Stroop task, Attention Network Task, Dimensional Change Card Sorting task, and stop-signal task that are known to tap into different aspects of executive functioning on healthy aging Telugu-English bilinguals. Second language (English) proficiency was calculated as a cumulative score that considered both subjective and objective measures of L2 fluency and use. Bilinguals were divided into two groups based on the cumulative score and compared on each task. We did not find any effect of language proficiency on any of the executive control measures. The additional Bayesian analysis also supported these findings. Therefore, the results do not support the claim that bilingual language proficiency modulates executive control, at least in the elderly population. We discuss the results with regard to the issue of bilingual advantage in executive control and the role of age and language use.

Prioritization of critical individual factors influencing willingness to communicate: AHP method

ABSTRACTSince its introduction to the field of modern language instruction, willingness to communicate (WTC) attracted much attention from researchers and practitioners. Since then, a large and growing body of literature has investigated the factors influencing language learners’ WTC. Among the factors identified, individual factors were found to have great influence on WTC. The current study aimed to identify the individual factors by reviewing the related literature and prioritize them by using analytical hierarchy process approach. Having these purposes in mind, the researchers asked a number of teaching English as a foreign language teachers to fill out the study's paired-comparison questionnaires. The instrument used to analyse the study's data was Expert Choice 11. The results revealed that among the 10 main individual factors selected, personality, self-perceived communication competence and L2 fluency received the first to third priorities with the relative weights of 0.28, 0.193 and 0.141, respectively. Pedagogical implications and suggestions for further research were also presented.

Exploring Connections Between First and Second Language Fluency: A Mixed Methods Approach

AbstractMany factors influencing second language (L2) speech fluency have been widely studied, but the effects of first language (L1) fluency on L2 speech fluency are still relatively poorly understood. In contrast to mostly quantitative previous studies, the present study adopted a mixed methods approach to examining the connections between L1 fluency and L2 fluency. Monologue speech samples in L1 and L2 were obtained from 42 Finnish learners of English at 2 school levels (9th grade and upper secondary school). The samples were examined for 13 measures capturing different aspects of fluency: temporal fluency, including speed and pausing, and stalling mechanisms. The results indicated positive correlations between the majority of temporal L1 and L2 fluency measures. Regression analyses further demonstrated that most temporal L2 fluency measures could be predicted from L1 fluency measures to a certain extent, although the predictive power varied across the measures. Regarding stalling mechanisms, a complementary qualitative analysis provided insights to idiosyncratic patterns in their use in L1 and L2. Together, the findings suggest that L1 fluency is an important factor in explaining L2 fluency and should be more widely acknowledged in L2 fluency research, assessment, and teaching.

Pair Taping for Undergraduate EFL Students’ Speaking Fluency and Self Confidence

The need for speaking mastery in English has been dramatically increasing because of the confirmed position of English as a language for international communication. Unfortunately, most of students get less of appreciation in classroom speaking activities. Therefore, to establish a natural approach where students could develop L2 fluency more effectively than what has occurred inside the classroom, the researchers tried Pair Taping (PT) in their Speaking Class. A number of studies have indicated that using PT facilitate students’ fluency and confidence (Washburn & Christianson: 1996, Kubo: 2009, Kluge & Taylor: 2000, and Nguyen: 2012). This current study attempted at answering the questions related to: 1) the potential benefit of PT upon the students’ speaking fluency, 2) the students’ perspectives on their English speaking performance, and 3) the students’ attitudes toward PT. The findings revealed that pair taping could be conducive to promote students’ speaking fluency along with developing their knowledge of language. It also advances our understanding of how pair taping makes contribution to foreign language learning and provide useful insight to teachers, lecturers or course designers in designing speaking course. The implementation of this study was found to be helpful in building up students’ speaking skills by offering innovative learning experience to students.

Mitä on toisen kielen sujuvuus? Näkökulmia kognitiivisen ja puhetuotoksen sujuvuuden tutkimuksesta


 
 
 In this review article, we combine two approaches to the study of second language (L2) fluency: cognitive fluency and utterance fluency. The former concentrates on cognitive processing and its limitations, whereas the latter involves analyzing fluency-related features from speech samples. Despite theoretical links, the research traditions associated with the approaches have been relatively separate. In addition to providing an overview of the two approaches, the similarities and differences between them are illustrated with results related to one aspect of (dis)fluency, repetitions. Bringing together results related to cognitive and utterance fluency highlights the usefulness of combining different viewpoints in L2 fluency research and demonstrates the need for further interdisciplinary dialogue to gain a comprehensive picture of L2 fluency. Together, the results of studies emphasizing different aspects of L2 fluency also have important implications for L2 fluency assessment.
 
 

L2 fluency in spoken interaction: a case study on the use of other-repetitions and collaborative completions


 
 
 Second language (L2) speech fluency has usually been studied from an individual’s perspective with monologue speech samples, whereas fluency studies examining dialogue data, especially with focus on collaborative practices, have been rare. In the present study, the aim was to examine how participants maintain fluency collaboratively. Four Finnish upper secondary school students of English completed a problem-solving task in pairs, and their spoken interactions were analyzed qualitatively with focus on collaborative completions and other-repetions. The findings demonstrated that collaborative completions and other-repetitions contribute to interactional fluency by creating cohesion to the interaction. Collaborative completions were also used to help the interlocutor to overcome temporary (individual) disfluent phases. Overall, the findings suggest that individual and interactional fluency are intertwined in spoken interaction, which should be acknowledged in theoretical approaches to L2 fluency and in empirical studies examining L2 fluency in interactional contexts.