L2 Reading Research Articles

Interaction between levels of text representation and working memory during L2 reading comprehension: What about it?

AbstractThe relationship between L2 reading comprehension and working memory has been studied for years, and previous studies highlight the existence of a correlation between the two. However, to our knowledge, no previous study used Kintsch's Multilevel Comprehension Model to operationalize reading comprehension in the investigation of its relationship with working memory. More specifically, according to Kintsch's model, comprehension consists of three text representation levels—the surface level (the literal wording of the text), the textbase (which includes inferences made by the reader), and the situation model (the integration of explicit and implicit text information with readers’ background knowledge). Therefore, the study reported in this paper examined the contribution of working memory, the short‐term retention of information and its manipulation, to different text representation levels during L2 reading comprehension. To do so, fifty‐five (N = 55) adult L2 learners of French completed L2 reading comprehension task tapping into three levels of text representation and a numerical complex working memory task. The results showed, on the one hand, a significant contribution of working memory to L2 reading comprehension and, on the other hand, that this relationship was specifically observed with the situation model.

Emotion effects in second language processing: Evidence from eye movements in natural sentence reading

Abstract There exists insufficient eye-tracking evidence on the differences in emotional word processing between the first language (L1) and second language (L2) readers. This study conducted an eye-tracking experiment to investigate the emotional effects in L2 sentence reading, and to explore the modulation of L2 proficiency and individual emotional states. Adapted from Knickerbocker et al. (2015), the current study recorded eye movements at both early and late processing stages when late Chinese–English bilinguals read emotion-label and neutral target words in natural L2 sentences. Results indicated that L2 readers did not show the facilitation effects of lexical affective connotations during sentence reading, and they even demonstrated processing disadvantages for L2 emotional words. Additionally, the interaction effect between L2 proficiency and emotion was consistently significant for the measure of total reading time in positive words. Measurements of participants’ depressive and anxious states were not robustly correlated with eye movement measures. Our findings supplemented new evidence to existing sparse eye-tracking experiments on L2 emotion processing, and lent support to several theoretical frameworks in the bilingual research field, including the Emotional Contexts of Learning Theory, Lexical Quality Hypothesis and Revised Hierarchical Model.

Study on the Factors of Affecting L2 Reading Information Processing and their Regulatory Strategies

L2 reading information processing is influenced by various factors, and mastering the relevant influencing factors and their regulatory strategies is crucial for effectively improving L2 reading proficiency. This study explores the influencing factors and their regulatory strategies in L2 reading information processing through the scale survey. It is found in the study that linguistic factors, non-linguistic factors, and reading regulatory strategies all have significant impacts on the effectiveness of L2 reading information processing. Linguistic factors, such as vocabulary size and grammar knowledge, are considered as the most critical factors influencing L2 reading outcomes and are essential for comprehending and interpreting reading material information. Non-linguistic factors like attention and memory also play crucial roles in reading information processing, with focused attention and efficient memory utilization aiding in the extraction of reading information. Therefore, it is necessary to employ appropriate regulatory strategies during L2 reading process, such as cognitive regulation strategies and social interaction strategies, to effectively enhance reading efficiency. This research contributes to optimizing the teaching effectiveness of L2 reading and promoting the development of reading ability.

Deconstructing Summary Writing: Further Exploration of L2 Reading and Writing

The hybrid nature of reading-to-write tasks calls for more empirical research on understanding the relationship between L2 reading, writing, and proficiency. This study examines summaries written by 46 Emirati university students, who were asked to write a 150-word summary of an expository text on the topic of “consumerism” during class hours. The summary was assessed based on an analytic rubric. It was also assessed quantitatively in terms of the inclusion of the number of important ideas from the source text, namely, content analysis scores. In addition, the students’ language proficiency, reading proficiency, and writing proficiency had already been externally ascertained with their recent IELTS scores. Significantly positive correlations were found between summary scores and IELTS reading scores, IELTS writing scores, and IELTS proficiency scores. Only a significantly positive relationship was found between content analysis scores and IELTS reading scores, but not the IELTS writing scores and IELTS proficiency scores. This implies the importance of enhancing students’ reading, writing, and language proficiency to help them write an effective summary, and reading in itself is insufficient in the production of an effective summary.

"Short-Circuit" L1 use in pre-reading activities and its effects on L2 reading comprehension and focus-on-vocabulary learning

This study explores the effect of categorically different pre-reading activities in learners’ L1 on reading comprehension and learning of focus-on-vocabulary. The participants were sixty Turkish EFL learners attending a state high school, and the data was gathered from their achievement test scores. We analyzed the data through one-way multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) and implemented t-test statistical procedures. The findings revealed that the treatment group, who were exposed to pre-reading activities in L1, obtained better results both in reading comprehension and focus-on-vocabulary activities than the control group. The positive effect of implementing the ‘’short-circuit’’ L1 use in pre-reading activities for reading comprehension and focus-on-vocabulary exercises was observed. It was also seen that categorically different pre-reading activities enhanced EFL learners’ reading comprehension and vocabulary learning.

Assessing the dimensionality of Chinese as a second language reading: a confirmatory factor analysis approach

Abstract Second language (L2) reading is a complex construct, and there is no consensus about its dimensionality. The investigation of the dimensionality of L2 reading ability is of great significance since it can provide important implications for teaching and testing. Understanding of the factor structure, subskills, and sub-knowledge of L2 reading is the starting point for language teachers and test developers to plan a syllabus, describe students’ reading proficiency, and develop reading assessments. This study investigated the factor structure of Chinese L2 reading, which has been less commonly studied compared to alphabetic languages. Three hypotheses derived from the literature review have been tested: 1) L2 reading is a unitary skill; 2) L2 reading is bi-divisible; 3) L2 reading is tri-divisible. A series of confirmatory factor analyses shows that the correlated three-factor model is the most appropriate for explaining the factor structure. L2 Chinese reading comprehension can be conceptualized as consisting of three inter-correlated components: lower-level decoding, interim-level textbase construction, and higher-level situation-model building. This study also explores subcomponents of each factor, highlighting Chinese-specific linguistic features and corresponding cognitive processes. Implications for future research, teaching, and testing are provided.

L2 Reading During Higher Education in Colombia

The results of a diagnostic L2 reading test applied to first-semester students at a higher education institution in Colombia demonstrated that most of the population entered the university with a lower reading comprehension level than the required for the entrance to tertiary education. According to MEN. The results gathered were categorized taking into account the CEFR levels (B2, B1, A2, A1, and –A1). This test’s results revealed that the 85% of the evaluated population was classified at level A1; the 35% was placed at level A2; and the last 8% was classified at level –A1; on the other hand, there were no students placed in the higher levels (B1, B2). It is observed that most of the participants were place in level A1, according to the CEFR, which means that these students lack the required standards to start college studies, regarding L2 reading skills. In order to face this situation, some university professors in this context were also observed with the intention of identifying the positive practices in terms of reading comprehension and the chances to improve.

The relationship between L2 vocabulary knowledge and reading proficiency: The moderating effects of vocabulary fluency

In this study, we ascertain the links between the four dimensions of L2 vocabulary knowledge and L2 reading proficiency and the moderating effects of vocabulary fluency. For this purpose, 312 EFL Chinese university student volunteers were recruited from six majors at one tertiary university in Southeast China, and they took a series of vocabulary tests and the IELTS reading test. SEM and PING’S SINGLE INDICATOR INTERACTION methods were adopted to analyze the collected test data. The results indicated that (a) receptive lexical knowledge has a much closer link with reading proficiency than productive vocabulary knowledge; (b) among the four dimensions of L2 vocabulary knowledge, receptive vocabulary depth has a closer connection with reading proficiency than receptive vocabulary breadth; (c) vocabulary fluency has a substantial moderating effect on the connection between L2 vocabulary and reading proficiency; and (d) multiple regression analysis verifies that whole-word knowledge explains 49% of the variance in L2 reading testing grades. We discuss theoretical and instructional implications, focusing on the role of the four dimensions of L2 vocabulary knowledge in the vocabulary assessment criteria for developing L2 reading proficiency.

Adaptation in L2 sentence processing: An EEG study

According to rational adaptation approaches of language processing, readers adjust their expectations of upcoming information depending on the distributional properties of the preceding language input. However, adaptation to sentence structures has not been systematically attested, especially not in second-language (L2) processing. To further our understanding of adaptive processes, we recorded electroencephalogram (EEG) from L1-Mandarin–L2-English speakers while they read English sentences containing a coordination ambiguity. This ambiguity was always resolved toward a less-preferred clausal coordination in the first half of the study, and towards a noun-phrase coordination in the second half. Group-level results suggest that L2 readers adapted but at a slow rate and a coarse level. Individuals differed in that some changed their processing strategies, and some did not. These findings suggest that adaptation is not a direct function of fine-grained input distributions, and are problematic for the idea that adaptation is important for language learning.

Cross-language semantic and orthographic parafoveal processing by bilingual L1 German–L2 English readers

Abstract In a recent study, Fernandez et al. (2021) investigated parafoveal processing in L1 English and L1 German–L2 English readers using the gaze contingent boundary paradigm (Rayner, 1975). Unexpectedly, L2 readers derived an interference from a non-cognate translation parafoveal mask (arrow vs. pfeil), but derived a benefit from a German orthographic parafoveal mask (arrow vs. pfexk) when reading in English. The authors argued that bilingual readers incurred a switching cost from the complete German word, and derived a benefit by keeping both lexicons active from the partial German word. In this registered report, we further test this finding with L1 German–L2 English participants using improved items, but with the sentences presented in German. We were able to replicate the non-cognate translation interference but not the orthographic facilitation. Follow up comparisons showed that all parafoveal masks evoked similar inhibition, suggesting that bilingual readers do not process non-cognate semantic or orthographic information parafoveally.

Word processing before explicit attention: Using the gaze-contingent boundary paradigm in L2 reading research

Eye-movement studies investigating second language (L2) word processing during reading are growing exponentially. However, what information L2 readers are able to process parafoveally is a less researched topic. The gaze-contingent boundary paradigm (Rayner, 1975) allows researchers to manipulate visual information in an upcoming word during reading, tapping into real-time word processing without awareness. This article provides an overview of experimental studies of parafoveal word processing in reading, followed by a methodological review of the use of the boundary paradigm in L2 and bilingual research. We synthesize key methodological details (including preview type, eye-movement measures) and findings of 15 experiments that met our search criteria, concluding that the parafoveal preview effect observed when reading in the first language is also present in L2 reading. We propose how the gaze-contingent boundary paradigm can be used to study L2 lexical knowledge and factors that affect its development. Finally, we provide advice and instructions for designing and conducting boundary paradigm experiments.

The Correlation Between Students’ Reading Attitude and Their Reading Comprehension

The act of comprehending a text is known as reading comprehension. The aim is to fully comprehend what is being described in the text. L2 reading may be influenced by a variety of factors, one of them is reading attitude. A learner's reading attitude, which affects whether they enjoy or hate reading, may have an impact on their reading skills through how involved they are with their reading. The aim of this study is to determine whether or not reading comprehension and student attitudes are correlated. A total of 48 junior high school students in the eighth grade participated in this study. The data was collected by distributing a reading attitude questionnaire and reading comprehension TOEFL Junior Test. The result found that the students’ reading attitude was fairly good (M = 3.40) and their reading comprehension was mostly at B1 level (M = 288.35). However, the result of Pearson Correlation showed that there is a weak correlation between students’ reading attitude and their reading comprehension (r = .279, p = 0.055). The students believe that reading can give them a positive impact, yet they do not really like the activity of reading.

Vietnamese EFL Students’ Perceptions and Self-reported Use of Lexical Inferencing in L2 Reading

Lexical inferencing has long been proven to play an important role in reading comprehension, specifically when it comes to strategies for dealing with unfamiliar terms in reading texts. Although much research has been done on the employment of lexical inferencing strategies in L2 reading, empirical evidence concerning the perceptions and practices of lexical inferencing strategies in Vietnamese contexts is just humble. To contribute to narrowing this gap, the current study is aimed to investigate Vietnamese EFL learners’ perceptions and self-reported use of lexical inferencing strategies in reading comprehension. Data were collected from 60 English-majored students at a private university in the Mekong Delta of Vietnam through a questionnaire. The results indicated that most students perceived lexical inferencing as being of significant values in L2 reading. As for the strategies in this regard, it was found that contextual and intralingual cues were commonly used in the participants’ lexical inferencing with the same level of frequency. It is suggested that more attention should be paid to lexical inferencing strategy instruction in EFL classrooms for the sake of students’ learning, especially their reading comprehension performance.

THE EFFECTS OF STRATEGY TRAINING ON THE USE OF GLOBAL READING STRATEGIES: IMPLICATIONS FROM THINK-ALOUD AND EYE-TRACKING DATA

Considering the critical role of readings strategies in L2 reading this study aimed to investigate the impact of strategy training on Turkish EFL learners’ use of global reading strategies. 23 freshmen, enrolled in the ELT Department, participated in the study, and the data were collected through eye tracking and thinkaloud protocols. The results are encouraging for the use of reciprocal teaching, one of the comprehensionenhancing approaches to teach reading, in the EFL contexts. Eye tracking results, hand in hand with the think-aloud protocols’ findings, revealed that the participants utilised global reading strategies more frequently to a statistically significant degree after the strategy instruction. Thus, it was concluded that strategy training was useful for the participants to improve their use of global reading strategies, and a recent technological tool can be purposefully integrated into the data collection procedure of educational research studies. Pedagogical implications on the strategy training for the employment of global reading strategies that would help students improve reading skills need to be given attention by teachers.

Textbook-based L2 Oral Reading Fluency of Lower-level 8th Grade EFL Students and Its Association with L2 Reading Comprehension

The present investigation endeavors to assess the L2 oral reading fluency and comprehension abilities of Korean EFL middle school students in the context of the Korean national curriculum. Sixty-one eighth-grade students participated in the study, which involved oral reading and comprehension tests using second-year middle school English materials. Informal reading assessments were also conducted to evaluate the students' English word reading accuracy, automaticity, and prosody, and L2 oral reading fluency was determined from these measures. The results showed that only 30% of the students were capable of reading independently, while the remaining students encountered difficulties. A significant correlation was found between L2 oral reading fluency and L2 reading comprehension. The findings of this study provide valuable contributions to the field of Korean English education and hold implications for both L2 reading instruction and research.

Compensatory effects of individual differences, language proficiency, and reading behavior: an eye-tracking study of second language reading assessment

Reading in a second language (L2) is a complex process that incorporates linguistic knowledge and literacy abilities, as well as strategic competence to approach different types of reading tasks depending on reading goals. However, much of the previous research was limited to correlational studies and focused on the relative contribution of broad categories of L2 proficiency and first-language (L1) literacy to L2 reading comprehension. However, investigations into L2 reading performance can benefit from advances in real-time, concurrent data collection methodologies such as eye-tracking. This study utilized eye-tracking methods to examined L2 reading comprehension of 102 readers across three different reading tasks [Cloze reading, Multiple-choice (MC) quiz, and reading-to-summarize], comparing the comprehension scores to L2 proficiency, individual differences (reasoning, working memory, motivation) and reading behavior (eye-tracking metrics related to attention to reading texts and tasks, length of fixations). Results indicate that the score on each task could be modeled each using a different mix of predictors, with the cloze task being most strongly predicted and the MC task being least predicted. The Summary task was in-between, but with a highly interpretable model. Interactions between fixation duration and cognitive abilities were found, showing how efficient fixation is generally important for comprehension, but the impact can be compensated for with motivation and reasoning ability.

The Impact of English Teachers on ESL Pre-University Students' L2 Reading Motivation in Pakistan

Motivation is a crucial factor in educational achievement nt. It can influence students' willingness to try to learn and succeed. In a context like Pakistan, where L2 (English) is a critical compulsory subject at the pre-university level, motivation is essential for students to learn effectively. This study investigated the influence of competent and incompetent English teachers on L2 (English) reading motivation. A qualitative case study was conducted with 6 (3 male and 3 Female] ESL pre-university students from Government MAO Graduate College, Lahore, Pakistan. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews and class observations. The data were analysed using thematic and coding procedures. The study found that competent English teachers positively influenced students' L2 (English) reading motivation. These teachers were found to be enthusiastic, knowledgeable, and supportive. They created a positive learning environment and made learning engaging and challenging. Incompetent English teachers, on the other hand, negatively influenced students' L2 (English) reading motivation. These teachers were found to be dull, uninspiring, and unhelpful. They created a hostile learning environment and made learning tedious and frustrating ng. The study recommends that competent English teachers with appropriate training be employed to motivate students for L2 (English) reading.

Digital Games and Second Language Learning among Tertiary-level EFL Learners: A Critical Review

Despite the increased interest in the possibilities of digital games in second language education, their use in higher education is a relatively uncharted territory. This review was carried out to examine how digital game-based language learning is used, and what its effects are on language learners at tertiary level in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) contexts. Twenty-seven studies were short-listed from academic literature and were analysed for research methodology, theoretical frameworks, research foci, game types and specifications, research results, and pedagogical implications. The research revealed six types of digital games, each with its own affordances that could enhance language learning. It was also found that these games increased vocabulary uptake and long-term lexical retention, enhanced L2 reading and listening comprehension, fostered writing ability and communicative competence, and increased motivation and willingness to communicate in the L2. Therefore, it may be deduced that digital games can be employed as a beneficial tool for the development of L2 competence and for the enrichment of the language learning experience. Suggestions for further research and educational implications have been provided.

Eye Movement Traces of Linguistic Knowledge in Native and Non-Native Reading.

The detailed study of eye movements in reading has shed considerable light into how language processing unfolds in real time. Yet eye movements in reading remain inadequately studied in non-native (L2) readers, even though much of the world's population is multilingual. Here we present a detailed analysis of the quantitative functional influences of word length, frequency, and predictability on eye movement measures in reading in a large, linguistically diverse sample of non-native English readers. We find many similar qualitative effects as in L1 readers, but crucially also a proficiency-sensitive "lexicon-context tradeoff". The most proficient L2 readers' eye movements approach an L1 pattern, but as L2 proficiency diminishes, readers' eye movements become less sensitive to a word's predictability in context and more sensitive to word frequency, which is context-invariant. This tradeoff supports a rational, experience-dependent account of how context-driven expectations are deployed in L2 language processing.

Speech Prosody and Reading Comprehension in Chinese-English Bilingual Children: The Mediating Role of Syntactic Awareness.

Although children's prosodic sensitivity links with their reading comprehension, the factors affecting this link remain unclear. By simultaneously measuring first language (L1) Chinese and second language (L2) English prosodic sensitivity and reading comprehension, this study examined the mediating role of syntactic awareness on prosody-reading comprehension among Hong Kong Chinese-English bilingual children. A group of 227 Hong Kong Chinese-English bilingual fourth graders completed L1 and L2 prosodic sensitivity (Cantonese lexical tone awareness and English prosodic sensitivity), syntactic awareness, and reading comprehension and control measures of cognitive (nonverbal IQ, short-term memory, and working memory), metalinguistic (phonological awareness and morphological awareness), linguistic (vocabulary knowledge), and word reading skills. The within-language analyses showed a partial mediation effect of Chinese syntactic awareness on the relation between Cantonese lexical tone awareness and Chinese reading comprehension, but a full mediation effect of English syntactic awareness on the relation between English prosodic sensitivity and English reading comprehension. The cross-language analyses revealed a significant direct effect of Cantonese lexical tone awareness on English reading comprehension and a significant indirect effect of English prosodic sensitivity on Chinese reading comprehension via Chinese syntactic awareness. These findings suggest that, despite the language-independent mediating role of syntactic awareness in bridging prosody and reading comprehension, the degree of this mediation is shaped by language-specific prosody and its relations with other linguistic structures, including semantics.