L2 Input Research Articles

Building Student Teacher Interaction Pattern in EFL-CLT Classroom

One of the priorities of language teachers is to ensure classes are interesting and engaging. Learners’ different backgrounds and individual preferences, however, make each class unique. The objective of EFL classroom adopting Communicative language teaching (CLT) approach is to be fluent and communicative competence in genuine communication (Hatch1978; Nunan, 1987). In this context, EFL teachers play a pivotal role in creating a comfortable environment to persuade the students in communicative interaction. By a good communication between the teacher and students the teaching learning process will be more effective. The teachers can motivate and encourage students to communicate with them well, if interaction has been done. Teachers as the source of second language or foreign language should give meaningful interactions to the students. Krashen(1981,1985) states to facilitate such meaningful interactions, EFL teachers serve as a source of L2 input to the students. The writer attempts to build the pattern of student teacher interaction and reveals the factors inhibit teachers to interact with students.

Bilingual children’s story comprehension across language boundaries: does retelling improve comprehension?

ABSTRACT The main objective of this study was to investigate 9–10-year-old children’s comprehension processes during listening to and free recall of a story. A cross-linguistic design comprised texts in L1 German and recall in L2 English and vice versa. Corresponding mono-linguistic control conditions in either L1 or L2 allowed to examine the extent to which higher-level comprehension processes led to the same performance of story recall, construction of a coherent text representation and inference making across language boundaries. The findings revealed that comprehension predominantly occurred during the input phase. Better comprehension resulted when L1 input was provided as opposed to L2 input. Retelling the story in L1 added less to comprehension when the input was in L2. The findings supported the prediction derived from the capacity hypothesis that bilingual children’s comprehension benefits from resources set free by more automatic processing during listening to a story in L1. A comparable automaticity effect was not observed during retelling in L1. L1-dominant bilinguals’ comprehension reacted sensitively to bilingual language conditions in contrast to balanced bilinguals’ performance.

How does maternal education influence the linguistic environment supporting bilingual language development in child second language learners of English?

Aims: In monolingual situations, mothers with higher levels of education are more likely to provide their children with enriched linguistic input. However, in bilingual situations, the relationship between maternal education and input is more complex because education may have occurred in one, but not both, of the languages. This study details this complexity by examining the relationship between maternal education and linguistic input in a group of children learning English as a second language (L2). Method: Participants were 89 immigrant/refugee children, living in Canada with diverse first languages (L1s). They completed a story-telling task in their L2 and parent reports provided a measure of L1 development. Parents also answered detailed questionnaires about family demographics and linguistic input within the family. Results: Regression modeling revealed that cumulative exposure to the L2 in school, maternal L2 fluency, relative quantity of L1/L2 use by the mother (input) and by the child (output) all influenced children’s L1 and L2 development. Relative quantity of input and maternal L2 fluency were, in turn, influenced by the amount of education mothers had completed and the language in which that education occurred. In instances where mothers were educated primarily in the L1, higher levels of education were associated with relatively more L1 input. For mothers who were educated predominantly in the L2, higher levels of education were associated with relatively more L2 input. Across both groups, mothers with higher levels of education had higher L2 fluency. Conclusion: This study revealed a complex relationship between the amount of education a mother has, the language in which that education occurred and the linguistic input she provides to her children. This complexity highlights that monolingual studies about input and environment may not offer a sufficiently nuanced perspective to account for the greater levels of variability found in bilingual situations. Originality: Previous research has offered valuable insights into the relationship between individual difference factors and bilingual acquisition. This study moves the field forward through the consideration of the interaction between factors in shaping bilingual acquisition.

The effect of input on bilingual adolescents’ long-term language outcomes in a foreign language instruction context

The aim of the current study is twofold: to examine the effects of input on bilingual adolescents’ long-term second language (L2) outcomes in a minority/foreign language context; and to understand the interaction between input and other potential predictors of L2 outcomes, specifically environmental variables, learners’ motivation and language learning aptitude. Participants included 97 Mandarin–English bilingual adolescents in Taiwan who learned English as an L2 between the ages of two to eleven. All participants completed a listening comprehension and a story-telling task in English and two standardized language learning aptitude tests. Participants and their parents filled out a detailed questionnaire providing information about family demographics and in-class and out-of-class L2 input. Correlation and multivariate regression analyses revealed that input played an important role in long-term L2 listening comprehension outcome, but not in speech production outcomes. The results also showed that environmental variables and language learning aptitude significantly predicted long-term L2 listening comprehension and speech production outcomes. Finally, out-of-class L2 input outweighed instructional input and current input outweighed early input. Since most previous research on the role of input in long-term L2 outcomes was conducted in a majority/societal language context, the present study contributes to the topic by specifying the effect of input in L2 acquisition in a minority/foreign language context.

Noticing vocabulary holes aids incidental second language word learning: An experimental study

Noticing the hole (NTH) occurs when speakers want to say something, but realise they do not know the right word(s). Such awareness of lacking knowledge supposedly facilitates the acquisition of the unknown word(s) from later input (Swain, 1993). We tested this claim by experimentally inducing NTH in a second language (L2) for some participants (experimental), but not others (control). Then, in a price comparison game, all participants were exposed to spoken L2 input containing the to-be-learned words. They were unaware of taking part in an L2 study. Post-tests showed that participants who had noticed holes in their vocabulary had indeed learned more words compared to participants who had not. This held both for the experimental group as well as those participants in the control group who later reported to have noticed holes. Thus, when we become aware of vocabulary holes, the first step to improve our vocabulary is already taken.

Modelling Changes in the Cognitive Processing of Grammar in Implicit and Explicit Learning Conditions: Insights From an Eye-Tracking Study

This study used eye-tracking to examine changes in how second language (L2) learners process target grammatical exemplars in written L2 input in implicit and explicit instructional conditions and how these changes relate to learning gains. In three separate sessions, 77 L2 learners of English read a story containing seven examples of a grammatical construction. The results of a growth curve analysis indicated significant main effects for the instructional condition and test sessions on total fixation duration and a significant interaction between these two variables. There was minimal attentional processing and no improvement in processing efficiency of the target construction in the unenhanced condition. Learners’ attentional processing in the textually enhanced conditions decreased and, by the end of the experiment, they engaged in establishing and fine-tuning form-meaning links. In the two explicit instructional conditions, participants’ attention decreased over time and form-meaning representations of the target structure were strengthened.

Reading while listening to learn: young EFL learners’ perceptions

Reading while listening, i.e. simultaneously reading and listening to a text, has been shown to be an efficient procedure for foreign language learning. It has also been considered a way of increasing the quality and quantity of L2 input as well as a form of engaging readers in the process of reading. However, little research has been conducted about this mode of reading with young, inexperienced EFL learners. The present study reports on primary students’ levels of engagement and perceptions after participating on a one-year reading programme at school. The results reveal that the reading-while-listening mode seems to contribute positively to the students’ perceptions and level of engagement when reading in English.

Individual differences in second language speech learning in classroom settings: Roles of awareness in the longitudinal development of Japanese learners’ English /ɹ/ pronunciation

The current study longitudinally examined a crucial individual difference variable – i.e. awareness (operationalized as explicit attention and articulatory knowledge) – in adult second language (L2) speech learning in the context of 40 Japanese learners’ English /ɹ/ pronunciation development in an EFL classroom. The participants’ speech, elicited from word reading, sentence reading and timed picture description tasks at the beginning and end of one academic semester, were analysed in terms of three acoustic dimensions of English /ɹ/: third formant (F3), second formant (F2) and duration. Whereas the participants showed gains in the relatively easy aspect of the English /ɹ/ acquisition (F2 reduction for tongue retraction) as a function of increased L2 input, their explicit awareness of accurate English /ɹ/ pronunciation played a significant role in the acquisition of the relatively difficult dimension (lengthening phonemic duration). The awareness-acquisition link was not found, however, for the most difficult dimension (F3 reduction for labial, alveolar and pharyngeal constrictors) at least within the timeframe of the project.

“Excuse meeee!!”: (Mis)coordination of lexical and paralinguistic prosody in L2 hyperarticulation

The present study investigates how first language (L1) and second language (L2) speakers coordinate lexical and paralinguistic prosody (lexically determined pitch accent and utterance-level intonation) in hyperarticulated speech. Modifications of F0 and segmental durations in repeated utterances were analyzed jointly using a novel method, Functional Principal Component Analysis (FPCA). By testing Japanese and German participants as L1 and as L2 speakers of the respective languages, the task elicited a situation in which L2 speakers had to handle F0 and segmental durations when these prosodic properties mainly carry a paralinguistic function in their L1, but carry a lexical one in their L2 or vice versa. Results show language-dependent and -independent modifications in hyperarticulated speech in both speaker groups. The language-dependent modifications were negatively transferred to the respective L2. The restriction of Japanese lexical pitch accent prevented Japanese participants from phonologically modifying F0 contours in L1 and L2, and German L2 speakers applied the German pitch accent rules in L2 Japanese utterances. Lexical rules outweighed paralinguistic rules in modifying prosody. At the same time, both German and Japanese speakers hyperarticulated the utterances with utterance-final lengthening, larger pitch range and higher peak. Furthermore, we argue that there may be different dominance orders of prosodic properties in Japanese and German according to which prosodic property was more likely to be modified in hyperarticulated speech. L2 speakers were more prone to change a more dominant prosodic property in their L1 to convey a paralinguistic meaning, i.e., segmental durations for Japanese and F0 for German. The findings are particularly noteworthy as the uttered words were highly frequent words of which L2 learners should have had sufficient L2 input before.

The acquisition of relative clauses by Mandarin heritage language children

AbstractThis study examined the phenomena of incomplete acquisition, attrition, and protracted acquisition of the L1 in HL children by focusing on the comprehension and production of subject and object relative clauses (RCs) in Mandarin HL children. A cross-sectional design (study 1) and a longitudinal design (study 2) were both included. Our results showed that HL children were comparable to monolinguals for the comprehension of RCs in both study 1 and 2. For the production of RCs, although monolinguals outperformed HL children in study 1, HL children’s production of RCs was convergent with monolingual-like levels over time (study 2). We conclude that the reduced L1 input HL children receive in the host country does not necessarily lead to deficient acquisition of the L1. Perhaps for some complex structures in the L1 (e.g., RCs), HL children may need more time than monolingual children to accumulate the critical mass of input needed to acquire them.

Nonconvergence on the native speaker grammar: Defining L2 success

The issue of critical or sensitive periods affecting the outcome of second language (L2) acquisition has been the subject of intense investigation and debate for many years, with people arguing for or against maturational effects on ultimate attainment. In their influential paper, Johnson and Newport (1989) identify two hypotheses: the exercise hypothesis and the maturational state hypothesis. According to the former, if the capacity for acquiring language is exercised early in life (in first language acquisition), then language learning abilities will remain intact throughout life: in other words, permitting successful L2 acquisition regardless of age. In contrast, according to the maturational state hypothesis, the language learning capacity declines with age, affecting L2 acquisition as well as late L1. Johnson and Newport take their results, which show an age-related decline in performance during childhood and adolescence, to support the maturational state hypothesis. Many L2 researchers have adopted a maturational perspective and have reached similar conclusions as to the presence of critical or sensitive periods (e.g., Abrahamsson, 2012; DeKeyser & Larson-Hall, 2005; Long, 1990; Oyama, 1976; Patkowski, 1980). Some researchers have pointed out that age effects continue into adulthood, contrary to the claim for a critical period (e.g., Birdsong & Mollis, 2001). Others have suggested that what looks like an age-related maturational decline may be accounted for by confounding factors, such as task effects, effects of L1, amount of L2 use, education or input (e.g., Bialystok & Miller, 1999; Flege, Yeni-Komshian & Liu, 1999).

A Model of Underspecified Recognition for Phonological Integration: English Loan Vowels in American Norwegian

Using loanword data from Haugen (1953), this paper investigates variation in vowel integrations of English loanwords in the Norwegian among 19th century Norwegian immigrants to the United States, as first-language Norwegian and second-language English speakers. Previous research, most notably Flege (1995), has argued that speakers make use of L1 categories that are the most similar to the integrated L2 sound. In contrast, this research argues that the “most similar,” as well as less similar but attested, L1 integrated phonemes can be understood through the Lahiri and Reetz (2002) Underspecified Recognition model, where phonetic features of L2 input sounds are mapped onto hierarchically organized L1 distinctive features (i.e., Dresher, 2009).

Revisiting Comprehensible Input, Output Hypothesis and the Use of the L1 in the L2 Classroom

The present study investigates three approaches to teaching introduced into practice via the research domain of applied linguistics: Comprehensible Input Hypothesis, Comprehensible Output Hypothesis, and the use of L1 in the L2 classroom. The paper provides a literature review and relies on personal reflection, detailing the author’s experiences as both a second language learner and a teacher in a higher education setting. The evidence presented herein supports the key proposition of Comprehensible Input theory, which is that comprehensible input is essential for language acquisition. However, it also suggests that input used as a strategy in isolation is not practical for informing the process of language acquisition, and so must complemented by Comprehensible Output. Finally, the findings relating to L1 use, support Macaro’s (2005) recommendation regarding the use of the L1 as a facilitator to increase L2 input to optimal levels in the L2 classroom. The study recommends future empirical research; i.e. studies concentrating on the interlanguage of learners, and the application of Macaro’s (2005) strategies in context through different learning tasks and activities.

Transitional woes: On the impact of L2 input continuity from primary to secondary school

In this paper, we discuss the problem of articulation between levels in the educational system, as the transition from a rather more communicative, contentbased and holistic approach to English as a foreign language (EFL) teaching at primary level to more formal and explicit ways of foreign language (FL) teaching at secondary is often experienced as problematic by students and teachers alike (see, e.g., Muñoz, Tragant, & Camuñas, 2015). The results of a mixed methods analysis are presented, in which we analyzed, through a questionnaire and language experience essays, perceived continuity between input received in primary school and secondary school, as well as learners’ beliefs, attitudes and self-efficacy before and after they transitioned to secondary school. Twelve primary schools and six secondary schools in Switzerland participated in the study, with a total of 280 early learners of EFL (biological age 12-13 years, age of onset 8 years). We will argue that one of the main reasons why early FL instruction seems not to bear fruit later in secondary school is that, on the one hand, coherence in curriculum design and practice vary in a few—but crucial—aspects within and between primary schools. On the other hand, the fact that secondary education becomes a meeting point for mixed ability classes also seems to mitigate the potential advantages of an earlier start.

How Does L1 and L2 Exposure Impact L1 Performance in Bilingual Children? Evidence from Polish-English Migrants to the United Kingdom.

Most studies on bilingual language development focus on children’s second language (L2). Here, we investigated first language (L1) development of Polish-English early migrant bilinguals in four domains: vocabulary, grammar, phonological processing, and discourse. We first compared Polish language skills between bilinguals and their Polish non-migrant monolingual peers, and then investigated the influence of the cumulative exposure to L1 and L2 on bilinguals’ performance. We then examined whether high exposure to L1 could possibly minimize the gap between monolinguals and bilinguals. We analyzed data from 233 typically developing children (88 bilingual and 145 monolingual) aged 4;0 to 7;5 (years;months) on six language measures in Polish: receptive vocabulary, productive vocabulary, receptive grammar, productive grammar (sentence repetition), phonological processing (non-word repetition), and discourse abilities (narration). Information about language exposure was obtained via parental questionnaires. For each language task, we analyzed the data from the subsample of bilinguals who had completed all the tasks in question and from monolinguals matched one-on-one to the bilingual group on age, SES (measured by years of mother’s education), gender, non-verbal IQ, and short-term memory. The bilingual children scored lower than monolinguals in all language domains, except discourse. The group differences were more pronounced on the productive tasks (vocabulary, grammar, and phonological processing) and moderate on the receptive tasks (vocabulary and grammar). L1 exposure correlated positively with the vocabulary size and phonological processing. Grammar scores were not related to the levels of L1 exposure, but were predicted by general cognitive abilities. L2 exposure negatively influenced productive grammar in L1, suggesting possible L2 transfer effects on L1 grammatical performance. Children’s narrative skills benefitted from exposure to two languages: both L1 and L2 exposure influenced story structure scores in L1. Importantly, we did not find any evidence (in any of the tasks in which the gap was present) that the performance gap between monolinguals and bilinguals could be fully closed with high amounts of L1 input.

Presenting English polysemous phrasal verbs with two metaphor-based cognitive methods to Chinese EFL learners

The present study examined whether cognitive linguistic methods facilitate Chinese EFL learners' acquisition of English polysemous phrasal verbs. 120 participants were tested in a 2 (method: traditional v. cognitive) × 2 (English proficiency: intermediate v. high) between-subjects design in which the control group was presented English polysemous phrasal verbs in the traditional method and to the experimental group there were presented in a cognitive method. Both groups were then asked to take an immediate test to test their short-term memory, and a delayed post-test was conducted one week later to test long-term memory. Results show that compared with the traditional method 1) presenting polysemous phrasal verbs with metaphor association is beneficial to participants' long-term memory and English proficiency influences the understanding and retention of the learning materials; 2) presenting polysemous phrasal verbs based on orientational metaphor cannot efficiently facilitate participants' meaning retention of the phrasal verbs, neither in the short-term nor in the long-term test. The study confirms that cognitive methods are much more suited for EFL learners in the learning of polysemous phrasal verbs and appropriate L1 input is necessary when a new teaching method is introduced.

Acquisition of Future Perfect Progressive Tense by Persian L2 Learners of English: The Interpretability Hypothesis

The issue of non-native speakers’ divergence from L2 input has gained popularity in the field of second language acquisition during the previous decades. Many significant scholars have joined the discussion and tried to explain this phenomenon through various models and frameworks. In this regard, the present study discussed domains of divergence within the framework of interpretability hypothesis. To this end, syntactic structures of future perfect progressive tense were compared in English and Persian. To examine the validity of Interpretability Hypothesis (IH), 30 Iranian L2 learners at intermediate and advanced levels were selected based on the oxford quick placement test. Further, learners were required to answer two translation tests containing English to Persian (comprehension test) and Persian to English (production test) sentences. Results revealed that learners had no problem in comprehension of this tense; however, when it came to production, they experienced some instances of divergence. Based on the findings, underpinnings of IH are supported in the sense that the logically interpretable English future perfect progressive tense poses little problem for learners whose L1 lacks the tense phonologically. Moreover, the results showed that Persian learners resort to some other compensatory tenses to express futurity in their L1.

Vowel reduction patterns of early Spanish- English bilinguals receiving continuous L1 and L2 input

AbstractThis study investigates the production of three morphophonetic variations of schwa in American English: the plural allomorph {-s} as in watches, the possessive allomorph {-s} as in Sasha’s, and word-finally as in Russia. The production of these three allomorphs were examined in Miami’s English monolingual and early Spanish-English bilingual populations. Our purpose was to determine how native-like early Spanish-English bilinguals′ spectral qualities and reduced vowel durations were compared to Miami English monolinguals during a reading task. Results indicate that early bilinguals′ reduced vowels followed the same overall pattern as monolinguals, but had different acoustic properties.

The role of working memory in processing L2 input: Insights from eye-tracking

Our study investigated how attention paid to a target syntactic constructioncausative hadis related to the storage capacity and attention regulation function of working memory (WM) and how these WM abilities moderate the change of knowledge of the target construction in different input conditions. 80 Sri Lankan learners of English were exposed to examples of the target construction in explicit and implicit learning conditions and their eye movements were tracked as they read the input. Correlational and multiple regression analyses indicated a very strong relationship between WM abilities and gains in the knowledge of the target construction. WM scores were closely associated with gains in receptive knowledge in all input conditions, but they had a weaker link to the improvement of productive knowledge in the implicit learning conditions. The amount of attention paid to input was also strongly related to WM abilities.

An fMRI study of executive control during translation and oral reading in Cantonese-English bilingual speakers

An fMRI study of executive control during translation and oral reading in Cantonese-English bilingual speakers