King Of Egypt Research Articles

Cold War dilemmas and regional interests: the acknowledgment of Egypt’s King, Farouk I, as ‘King of Egypt and Sudan’ by Greece (October 1951–August 1952)

ABSTRACT (online only) The question of Farouk’s title is considered an important part of Anglo-Egyptian rivalry. However, the existing literature neglects the issue’s possible impact on third countries. The purpose of this article is to highlight if, how, and why a smaller Eastern-Mediterranean state – Greece in particular – was coerced into getting involved in the Anglo-Egyptian dispute, by being forced to decide whether to acknowledge Egypt’s King as ‘King of Egypt and Sudan’. Based on extensive archival research as well as the press of the time, from October 1951, when the issue emerged, to August 1952, when it ended with an Anglo-Egyptian compromise, this article sheds light on the formulation of Greece’s policy, explains its final decision and, finally, traces and analyses the factors that influenced it. The study concludes by assessing Greek efforts to balance between Great Britain and Egypt, in other words, between its national security priorities within NATO and the need to protect its regional interests.

The purported enthronement of Alexander the Great in Egypt (332 B.C.): between fragments of Greek historians, Hellenistic-Roman accounts and historiographical speculation

Commentators on the Alexander Romance (AR) have often countered the reservations of modern historians on using the text as a historical source for the life of Alexander the Great. This is particularly relevant with regard to the king’s purported enthronement at Memphis. Historical biographies of Alexander as well as recent studies on his Egyptian royal titles lend support to the use of the AR as a source for this particular event, by arguing that an Egyptian enthronement can be defended. These studies make use of a complete onomastic protocol in archaeological evidence that dates from Alexander’s time. The present article offers a systematic discussion of ancient accounts of his first stay in Memphis to emphasize that the reservations of modern historians are based on the silence on the first by historians from the time of Alexander, whose works (preserved only in fragments) were used by writers of the main corpus of Hellenistic-Roman sources. I argue that there is evidence of a Macedonian strategy that sought to align its monarchical experience with older Egyptian traditions as well as the inclination of the Memphite priestly elite to fulfill a messianic expectation disseminated since the disappearance of Nectanebo II. Both, however, for reasons including both the length of Alexander’s stay in Egypt and the special solemnity of the coronation of Egyptian kings, seem not to have resulted in his formal enthronement in Memphis. The silence of the Hellenistic-Roman sources remains imperative.

The purported enthronement of Alexander the Great in Egypt (332 B.C.): between fragments of Greek historians, Hellenistic-Roman accounts and historiographical speculation

Commentators on the Alexander Romance (AR) have often countered the reservations of modern historians on using the text as a historical source for the life of Alexander the Great. This is particularly relevant with regard to the king’s purported enthronement at Memphis. Historical biographies of Alexander as well as recent studies on his Egyptian royal titles lend support to the use of the AR as a source for this particular event, by arguing that an Egyptian enthronement can be defended. These studies make use of a complete onomastic protocol in archaeological evidence that dates from Alexander’s time. The present article offers a systematic discussion of ancient accounts of his first stay in Memphis to emphasize that the reservations of modern historians are based on the silence on the first by historians from the time of Alexander, whose works (preserved only in fragments) were used by writers of the main corpus of Hellenistic-Roman sources. I argue that there is evidence of a Macedonian strategy that sought to align its monarchical experience with older Egyptian traditions as well as the inclination of the Memphite priestly elite to fulfill a messianic expectation disseminated since the disappearance of Nectanebo II. Both, however, for reasons including both the length of Alexander’s stay in Egypt and the special solemnity of the coronation of Egyptian kings, seem not to have resulted in his formal enthronement in Memphis. The silence of the Hellenistic-Roman sources remains imperative.

The Universality of Art and Literature in P.B. Shelley’s “Ozymandias”

Ozymandias is about collapsed statue, constructed by Memnon, of Egyptian king Ramesses II in an empty desert. The people know about malicious King’s viciousness through poetry otherwise, all his city, empire and memorial on his praise have vanished over time. This research paper explores the theme of the universality of art over absolute monarchy, death and time. The hubris and dictatorship of the Egyptian ruler Ramesses II was transitory which faded in the past while the narration of the poem where an unnamed narrator at the beginning connects every normal individual around the world; the poetry establishes itself as the classic one passing down to many generations revitalizing the adept of the sculptor as well. Tyranny is not something to be praised over the years whereas art transfers its beauty to generations. Overall, the poet succeeds to prove the universality of art over absolute monarchy, death, and time. This article is researched through the lens of romanticism and mimetic theory. The romanticism not only centralizes the feelings and emotions of the innocent people who are subjugated to tyrants like Ramesses II but also normalizes the idea that such haughtiness, power and tyranny is common worldwide. Next, mimetic theory reflects the supremacy of imitation in art. This article shows how art is timeless in front of the so-called monarchy because the sculptor and poet of Ozymandias are alive forever but not the monarch.

War and Peace in Predynastic and Early Dynastic Egypt

The process of formation of the first state in ancient Egypt was very long. From chiefdoms to regional, and then all-Egyptian kings, the entire predynastic period took place, from the 4th millennium B.C., when the Nagada culture developed in Southern Egypt. The largest were local territories in Hierakonpolis, Nagada and Abydos. Already in the Nagada I phase, there were social elites under a leader — in chiefdoms, and in the Nagada II phase, institutions of regional kings arose in social property societies. In protodynastic times, during the Nagada III phase, significant changes occurred. The leaders of Hierakonpolis, Nagada and Abydos became the collectors of all Egyptian lands, assimilating the Lower Nile. For a long time in Egyptology, it was believed that already in early times there were two kingdoms in Egypt: The Northern in Lower Egypt and the Southern in the Nile Valley. The Palermo Stone depicts the red-crowned kings of Lower Egypt. And in a fragment from the Cairo Museum, they are already wearing a double crown: the white crown of Southern Egypt is inserted into the red crown of the Lower. And this is evidence of the unification of Egypt into a single kingdom. But who were these first Egyptian kings? Modern archaeological excavations in combination with long-known artifacts allow us to reinterpret these dark pages of the creation of the first dual state. It is believed that the Lower Egypt was annexed to Upper Egypt in protodynastic times. In this article, the author hypothesizes that from late predynastic times, the Northern Kingdom was headed by elites who were appointed by the king of a united Egypt.

DIVINE MONARCHY IN THE LATE ERA IN EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION

The monarchy in ancient Egypt occupied a special place and the king played an important role in ancient Egypt, the king was absolute strength and will and unique in his clothing and badge, which acquired symbolism that reflects the absolute power and the ability to rebirth, the king is the living embodiment of the god Horus on earth. This research is in its general capacity and its association with divinity as the king was a god in every sense of the word, but the power of human beings in their lives was derived from the royal power deified as well as the order of the universe and its stability stems from the authority of the pharaoh, the king was not similar to God, and was not even half of the god, but was a complete god, as the monarchy in ancient Egypt priestly property, Any is a political function mixed and fused to religious and spiritual power, everything related to the king and the monarchy is imprinted with a religious character, even the king's badges and decorations, and the priests were able to dye the Egyptian monarchy with a strong religious dye that ruled the world. The research was divided into an introduction, three axes and a conclusion, the first axis included the ancient Egyptian king and that the ancient Egyptian perception of the king, who is an incarnate god representing the idol "Hour" on earth

Questions of the Foreigner: Metoikia and Democracy in Aeschylus’ Suppliants

The question of the foreigner, especially as elaborated by Jacques Derrida in the first of his two essays Of Hospitality, is at the heart of Aeschylus’ Suppliants, a play in which the fifty daughters of the Egyptian king Danaus appeal to the Argive king Pelasgus for asylum. Indeed, Aeschylus structures much of the initial encounter between the Danaids and Pelasgus in the interrogatory mode: as an exchange of questions to the foreigner, of the foreigner. Beginning with queries about identity, the play moves quickly to pose questions about authority, ultimately running aground upon Pelasgus’ inability to decide what to do about these Egyptian-Argive women whose demands for hospitality threaten his control over the city. Where previous scholarship on the play has focused on its representation of foreignness or its introduction of democratic rule, a close reading in light of Derrida’s work on hospitality elaborates the important relationship between hospitality and democratic sovereignty that the play develops. For the real question of the foreigner asks how the people can wield power in a city; in response, the play imagines the origins of democracy as an act of civic hospitality or metoikia.

Killing Pharaohs in Exodus: The Anonymity of the Egyptian Kings, the Deconstruction of Their Individuality, and the Egyptian Practice of Damnatio Memoriae

Scholars have understood the anonymity of the Egyptian kings in Exodus in various ways. Some argue that the Israelite author intentionally anonymized the foreign kings for possible rhetorical effects. Others believe that the anonymity was a simple case of inadvertent forgetting. Although these approaches have merit in contributing to a more robust understanding of the anonymity of Pharaohs, a different approach may also have something to offer in grasping a fuller understanding of the absence of the Pharaonic names. In this regard, this article seeks to examine the anonymity in conversation with the Egyptian practice of damnatio memoriae (i.e., damnation of memory). According to this method, the proto-Israelite transmitters of the Exodus traditions deliberately obliterated the names of the Egyptian kings for the purpose of terminating their existence and memory from the proto-Israelite community.

Why was The Cult of Arsinoë II Philadelphus established in Egyptian Temples?

The cult of Arsinoë II Philadelphus is considered one of the most significant cults in Hellenistic Egypt. It originated from the Greek oriented cult of Theoi-Adelphoi after Arsinoë’s death and soon became a vital part of both Greek and Egyptian religious life. What is even more important, Arsinoë became the first member of Ptolemaic dynasty to receive such a cult in Egyptian temples. Yet we still do not quite understand why was it so prominently established there. This article proposes a possible answer to this question. Based on the information from Sais inscription, a source from the reign of Ptolemy II, we can conclude that the main reason for the spread of the cult of Arsinoë in Egyptian temples was the natural conditions that developed in Egypt in the mid-260s. BCE. The text mentions a certain deficiency of the land during the king’s visit to Sais in 265/64 BCE. It seems that at this time Egypt faced low floods of the Nile, which could possibly lead to a lack of crops throughout the country. This in turn could threaten the legitimacy of Ptolemy II, who, as a king of Egypt, was viewed as the one responsible for the floods of the Nile river. Thus an event like this could become a cause for major instability in society or even a revolt. Under these circumstances the cult of Arsinoë II Philadelphus was used to promote royal legitimacy and bind part of the Egyptian priesthood to the ruling house of the Ptolemies.

“The Leading Ones” and “Kings”: What Did Manetho Know About the Political Disintegration of the Second Intermediate Period, and How Did He Express This Knowledge?

The paper treats expressions in which Manetho’s narrative about the Hyksos period, known in literal quotation and detailed retelling by Josephus, describes the actors of power in Egypt at different phases of this period. On the eve of Hyksos invasion, according to Manetho, there was one king in Egypt and “the hegemonizing ones” (rulers, leaders) who stand apart from him in the context, and analysis of the text shows that they are the local rulers who performed quasi-independence under the nominal sovereignty of kings of a certain dynasty. In the phase of Hyksos control over all of Egypt, the Hyksos kings of Avaris are depicted as supreme rulers over the “kings of Thebaid” and “[kings] of other Egyptian lands” who are titularly equated with their Hyksos overlords by Manetho; at some point they overthrow the Hyksos yoke and begin the war against Avaris. By the end of this struggle, by Manetho, only the Theban kings are acting on the Egyptian side. This picture largely coincides with real history (the fragmentation of Egypt before the emergence of the Avaris kingdom and at the times of its hegemony; the division of all of Egypt between Avaris kingdom and the Theban kingdom independent of it in the last phase before the fall of Avaris). This reveals Manetho's high awareness of the real situation of the Second Intermediate Period; some primary sources of this awareness were probably inscriptions and literary compositions that directly reflected the interaction between various local rulers contemporaneous to each other.

“All Who Are with Him are Defeated”: Execration Texts of the Middle Kingdom on the Nubian Dynasties

The paper deals with dynastic lines of Nubian states, which were situated to the south of the 2nd Cataract during the Middle Kingdom. The names of Nubian rulers reached us in special lists — the so-called Execration texts. Carved on small figurines or vessels Execration texts were discovered and published in the previous century. There are four corpuses of texts today, covering almost the entire period of the Middle Kingdom: Helwan, Mirgissa, Berlin, and Brussels. Due to these sources, it was possible to establish a dynastic connection between some of the rulers mentioned in the texts of different corpuses. This made it possible to construct a genealogical line of almost chiefs of Nubian regions known to the Egyptians of the Middle Kingdom. An analysis of the names of the rulers, as well as additional information from other sources, made it possible to correct approximate dating of the corpuses Execration texts, which was given by previous researchers. The genealogical lines of the rulers of Nubia, formed with the help of these sources and their connection to the dates of the reign of the Egyptian kings of the XII dynasty made it possible to clarify some details of the political relationship between Egypt of the Middle Kingdom and the Nubian states.

Cultural Encounter, Race, and a Humanist Ideology of Empire in the Art of Trecento Venice

Cultural Encounter, Race, and a Humanist Ideology of Empire in the Art of Trecento Venice

Dimensions and Proportions of the Ptolemaic Temple at Gebel el-Nour

The paper focuses on the analysis of plan proportions of the Ptolemaic temple near the settlement of Gebel el-Nour (Egypt), the construction of which is dated to the period of reign of Egyptian king Ptolemy II Philadelphus (king from 284 to 246 B.C.). In an attempt to understand the possible logic of the dimensional and geometrical construction of the temple, the development of arithmetical, graphic and modular methods of proportionality is considered in the examples of structures from the Early Dynastic to Ptolemaic periods. Thus, during the construction of the largest Early Dynastic structures the simplest modular system based on sequentially constructed squares in combination with a system of diagonal constructions was used. During the Old Kingdom architecture begins to reflect the proportions of the Egyptian rectangular triangle 3:4:5. To replace the simple ratio of integers and rectangular triangles, laid in the proportions of buildings, in the New Kingdom era comes a system of building on the diagonals of the square. The growing influence of the Mediterranean region in the Ptolemaic period led to the introduction of the Greek system of construction modulo. Meanwhile, during this period there was a conscious archaization — a return to the methods of the Old Kingdom. The analysis of the temple in Gebel el-Nour shows that its geometry is based on a square, the side of which, giving the width of the ground area (16.68 m), and the diagonal of which gives its length (23.60 m). The centre of the square is the centre of the circle (diameter 34.88 m) into which the whole temple is inscribed (pronaos together with the naos). Premises and internal walls of the temple can be built according to the module, the role of which is probably played by the diameter of the base of the column (1.19 m) or on the basis of a rectangular triangle 3:4:5. Thus a complex of methods could be applied to the construction of the temple. Each of these methods solved its task: to obtain general geometry of the building, aesthetics (facades), construction (wall thickness), and functioning (size and configuration of the hall). The use of geometric principles from a much earlier period (the archaic construction of the diagonal square and the use of a rectangular triangle 3:4:5 to divide the interior spaces) is probably a deliberate archaization typical of the period.

Tatami: The Enigmatic Toponym of Western Judah, and Use of Suffixes in Dating Toponyms

ABSTRACT Sometimes, all that remains from the history of a place is its name. Thus, toponyms may provide valuable information. Moving backward in time, we trace the ancient history of the Arab/Crusader village Bēt ˁAṭab in western Judea, with remains from Middle-Bronze II (MB II), Iron III and Hellenistic periods. In Roman times it was Eusebius’ Ēnadab, ‘Spring of ˁaṭab’, identified near the spring of this name mentioned in the Survey of Western Palestine. While missing from Masoretic Biblical town lists, Tatami of the Septuagint derives by dropping the b- from reconstructed batˁaṭami, traced to Northwest Semitic languages exhibiting the ay>ā diphthong contraction. The MB II final -i is analysed as an enclitic -mi, found also in the Execration Text (ET) Shechem, and as enclitic -ma in personal names from Alalaḫ VII. The ‘prince’ of nearby ET ‘Ashnah (=Beth Shemesh) had an identical name as later Niqmi-epuh, King of Yamḫad, suggesting settlers from Yamḫad/Alalaḫ during the early 2nd millennium bce. In Bronze Age Bēt-X toponyms X was a deity. Thus, batˁaṭami = ‘place of the vulture-goddess shrine’. This, and additional evidence, suggest that Egyptian king Senwosret III could have set a shrine to goddess Nekhbet on Bēt ˁAṭab’s summit during his Shechem campaign.

Iconography and Attributes of Predynastic and Early Dynastic Kings as a Socio-Cultural Phenomenon

Established in Hierakonpolis, as well as in other strong politarchies: in Nagada and Abydos of the predynastic time, headed by a leader, vested with sacred and military functions, in a historical perspective, formed the basis of the institution of royal power and the state structure of the Egyptian territorial state. The structuring of the physical space of the historically established local territories corresponded to the centric socio-political structure of society headed by a leader, later a regional king, and in the dynastic era, the king of Egypt. Knowledge of the model of the world, its origin and the place of man in it occupied a central place in the mythology of predynastic Egypt. The ritual was the most important evidence of the role of cosmologic principles in their earthly incarnation. It played a primary role in the mythopoetic model of the world. At the same time, the main figure during the ritual, the holiday was the leader of society as a participant in the cosmological action - the creation of the universe. Hence the belief in the divinity of the sacred king, for he was considered the bearer of order, fighting chaos. Ritual items associated with the cult of the king, found in sanctuaries and royal tombs, provide important information about the iconography, attributes and insignia of power. The image-symbolic language of visual texts allows us to interpret the functions of the supreme power.

Konsep Karakter Kepemimpinan Nabi Ibrahim AS Dalam Membentuk SDM Unggulan Perspektif Al-Qur’an


 This article describes the concept of the leadership character of Prophet Ibrahim as the superior character of leaders and a reference for empowering Human Resources (HR) in the perspective of the Qur'an. The research was conducted using a library research approach with the maudhu'i interpretation method (thematic interpretation). Among the leadership characters of Prophet Ibrahim in this study are mastering interpersonal communication skills, strategists, argumentative, exemplary, religious, peace-loving, and responsibility. These characters are obtained based on historical studies between Prophet Ibrahim and his father, his people, King Namrudz, Prophet Lut, King of Egypt, mysterious guests and his son (Ismail) which were adapted from his story in the Qur'an. These leadership characters are expected to serve as role models for today's leaders in implementing their leadership according to Ibrahim's prophetic leadership guidelines in the contemporary context in Indonesia. Be it in the context of personal relationships with individual families, local communities, community leaders and so on. Thus, this research is expected to contribute to the development of the concept of prophetic character for office holders at all levels of life.
 Keywords: Character; Leadership; Human Resources

Saul, Benjamin, and the Emergence of Monarchy in Israel: Biblical and Archaeological Perspectives edited by Joachim J. Krause, Omer Sergi, and Kristin Weingart, [Ancient Israel and Its Literature], SBL Press, Atlanta, 2020, pp. xii + 233, £28.00, pbk

Saul, Benjamin, and the Emergence of Monarchy in Israel: Biblical and Archaeological Perspectives edited by Joachim J. Krause, Omer Sergi, and Kristin Weingart, [Ancient Israel and Its Literature], SBL Press, Atlanta, 2020, pp. xii + 233, £28.00, pbk

Ancient Egyptian kings under Divine Protection; Reflection in Art

Ancient Egyptian kings under Divine Protection; Reflection in Art

The Endowment Devoted To The Kiswah Of The Kaaba: A Historical Study

The kiswa of the Kaaba has a long history throughout the Islamic ages. All the caliphs and princes of the Islamic countries competed to clothe the Holy Kaaba with the best and most delicate fabrics and master in making it and spending on it. Therefore, according to a historical, methodological perspective, this paper aims to study the endowment allocated to the manufacture of the covering of the Holy Kaaba during the Islamic eras to reveal the first who approved the endowment system designated for cladding during the Islamic periods. In this study, the researcher will follow the historical approach because it aims to collect data, analyze it, and verify its validity. The research reached several results, among the most important of which were the following: It became clear through the research that the first person to approve the waqf system, which was allocated from its proceeds to spend on the cost of manufacturing the covering of the Holy Kaaba was by order of the good king bin Nasser bin Qalawun, king of Egypt, and through this work The extent of the care that the Sultans of the Mamluk state gave to the Holy Kaaba and its cladding becomes clear .

The Bearded Lady of Giza: Appropriation, Conspiracy, and Veiled Protest in the Pyramid Texts of Unas

We report here a thus far unrecognized, unusual hieroglyphic icon, ostensibly created by a scribal error on the north wall of the Sarcophagus Chamber inside the pyramid of the late Fifth Dynasty, ancient Egyptian King Unas. We present hieroglyphic, textual evidence that what looks like an accident of hieroglyph carving into the limestone wall instead appears to be an intentional, albeit veiled, reference to the couchant lion goddess Mehit with a bent rod above her back, an iconic symbol of the royal writers’ and archivists’ guild at the dawn of Egyptian civilization. While this combination of lioness and rod appears in sealings and title records from the first four dynasties of ancient Egypt, it disappeared from the known record after Fourth Dynasty King Khafre, more than a century before the time of King Unas. Thus, its reappearance, and ostensibly intentional placement within the earliest known version of the Pyramid Texts in Unas’ pyramid prompted us to search for further evidence why this may have been done. Scanning the Pyramid Texts for other veiled references, we show that invocating what was, by then, the archaic lioness cult of Mehit was part of a wider subtext apparently embedded by the texts’ composer into Unas’ hieroglyphic afterlife utterances using ancient Egyptian phonetic invocations called Heka Magic. We define and apply four criteria to amplify detection of veiled composer intent and reconstruct the theme of this subtext as a lament by the composer at the desecration of a preexisting lioness statue at Giza into the Great Sphinx, the expungement of the cult associated with Mehit, and the side-lining of the older cult of Thoth-Moon, both in favor of a new cult of the Sun dedicated to Re and Atum. We identify what may have been at issue in the mind of the composer, i.e., a fundamental violation of prevailing convention by the royal house during the Fourth Dynasty in re-carving the statue of a female lion goddess into the likeness of a living king wearing the divine beard, as if he was a living god-king. We conclude that by the time of King Unas, there must have been an influential faction at the royal court that opposed the cults of Atum and Re, the Sphinx, and above all, the claim of the royal rulers to divinity while still living. We suggest that this cadre of dissent against the state-ordained cult of the living Sun god kings must have been willing to risk their lives and conspire to sabotage the royal funerary corpus of texts with a veiled record of this opposition and its pretext that we have reconstructed. As evidence, we present our prime suspect to have masterminded this conspiracy to subvert the Pyramid Texts. We thus offer a novel explanation for the absence of explicit references to the Great Sphinx in the Old Kingdom for over a thousand years after its creation and provide new written evidence that this statue was remodeled from an older lioness monument.