Boletus Edulis Research Articles

Correlations between the phenolic and fibre composition of mushrooms and the glycaemic and textural characteristics of mushroom enriched extruded products

In this study, semolina extruded snack products were supplemented with white button mushroom (Agaricus bisporus), shiitake (Lentinula edodes) and porcini mushrooms (Boletus edulis). The functional properties of the products were analysed, including the nutritional profile, starch characteristics (content, gelatinisation and digestibility) and antioxidant activities (total phenolic content, DPPH and ORAC), colour, and textural properties. Compared to the control samples, extrudates supplemented with mushroom powder showed a reduced product expansion, decreased water absorption index, increased water solubility index and altered microstructure characteristics. Differences in starch gelatinisation and starch hydrolysis resulted in a reduced predictive glycaemic response value for mushroom supplemented extrudates. Inclusion of mushroom material resulted in higher levels of phenolic compounds and antioxidants.

Localization, ligand environment, bioavailability and toxicity of mercury in Boletus spp. and Scutiger pes-caprae mushrooms

This study provides information on mercury (Hg) localization, speciation and ligand environment in edible mushrooms: Boletus edulis, B. aereus and Scutiger pes-caprae collected at non-polluted and Hg polluted sites, by LA-ICP-MS, SR-μ-XRF and Hg L3-edge XANES and EXAFS. Mushrooms (especially young ones) collected at Hg polluted sites can contain more than 100 μg Hg g−1 of dry mass. Imaging of the element distribution shows that Hg accumulates mainly in the spore-forming part (hymenium) of the cap. Removal of hymenium before consumption can eliminate more than 50% of accumulated Hg.Mercury is mainly coordinated to di-thiols (43–82%), followed by di-selenols (13–35%) and tetra-thiols (12–20%). Mercury bioavailability, as determined by feeding the mushrooms to Spanish slugs (known metal bioindicators owing to accumulation of metals in their digestive gland), ranged from 4% (S. pes-caprae) to 30% (B. aereus), and decreased with increasing selenium (Se) levels in the mushrooms. Elevated Hg levels in mushrooms fed to the slugs induced toxic effects, but these effects were counteracted with increasing Se concentrations in the mushrooms, pointing to a protective role of Se against Hg toxicity through HgSe complexation. Nevertheless, consumption of the studied mushroom species from Hg polluted sites should be avoided.

Toxic trace elements in dried mushrooms: Effects of cooking and gastrointestinal digestion on food safety

Mushrooms can accumulate toxic trace elements. The objectives of the present study are to evaluate levels of mercury, cadmium, lead, and arsenic in dried mushrooms, to determine the effect of cooking on the contents of these elements, and to evaluate their bioaccessibility in the mushrooms ready for consumption. The results showed that Hg levels in Amanita ponderosa, Boletus edulis, Marasmius oreades, and Tricholoma georgii, as well as Cd levels in some samples of Amanita caesarea and T. georgii, exceeded the legislated limits. Cooking significantly reduced the levels of As (26–72%), whereas the reduction in levels of Hg, Cd, and Pb was much lower. However, the bioaccessibility of As (63–81%) was higher than the values obtained for the metals (<40%). Taking the effects of cooking and gastrointestinal digestion into account gives a more realistic estimate of the risk associated with the consumption of mushrooms.

Temporal dynamics of soil fungal communities after partial and total clear-cutting in a managed Pinus sylvestris stand

Forest management aimed to maximize timber production might impact soil fungi, especially those symbiotically associated to tree roots. In this study, we analyse the temporal dynamics of soil fungi along five sampling years after tree removal in a managed Pinus sylvestris stand in northern Spain, where timber production is combined with regular mushroom harvesting. Two management methods were tested: total and partial clear-cutting leaving retention trees for seedling regeneration. Undisturbed, uncut plots were also included in the experiment as a control treatment. The whole fungal community (phylotypes and ecological guilds) were analysed by high-throughput Illumina MiSeq sequencing of fungal ITS1 amplicons. We hypothesized that (1) ectomycorrhizal fungal communities will decrease after both clear-cutting treatments with a concurrent increase in the abundance of saprotrophs, (2) the abundance and diversity of the ectomycorrhizal guild will be more preserved in partially clear-cut than in total clear-cut plots, and (3) the overall fungal diversity will decrease in the cut plots leading to major losses of ectomycorrhizal species. Our results show that soil fungal composition changed across the five years after clear-cutting by decreasing ectomycorrhizal fungi and increasing saprotrophs. However, these changes did not significantly affect fungal diversity and there were taxa-specific responses to tree harvest treatments. Boletus edulis, the most abundant ectomycorrhizal species fruiting in the study area and a valuable local non-forest resource, was negatively affected by either clear-cutting treatments. Soil fungal community composition in partially clear-cut areas was not different from that of total clear-cut areas. Our results indicate a strong effect of tree harvest on the relative abundance of ectomycorrhizal fungi along the first years after clear-cutting. However, levels of fungal diversity were comparable to the undisturbed forest, thus suggesting a potential further recovery of ectomycorrhizal fungi through the colonization of the regenerated seedlings.

EVALUATION OF THE INTENSITY OF EDIBLE MUSHROOMS CONTAMINATION BY HEAVY METALS IN THE CONDITIONS OF RIGHT-BANK FOREST-STEPPE OF UKRAINE

The article is devoted to assessing the level of pollution of edible mushrooms by lead, cadmium, zinc and copper in the conditions of the Right Bank Forest-Steppe of Ukraine. Studies were carried out in the forest areas of the Vinnitsa and Kalinovsky districts of the Vinnitsa region. The study of the concentration of heavy metals was carried out in the scientific-measuring agrochemical laboratory of the department of ecology and environmental protection of the agronomical faculty on the basis of Vinnitsa National Agrarian University. The concentration of heavy metals in the fruit bodies of the fungi studied was determined by atomic absorption spectrometry after dry mineralization. Analysis of the anthropogenic impact on the environment shows that the intensity of contamination by heavy metals of all components of the environment in some areas is growing rapidly, to a certain extent leads to contamination of natural food raw materials with these toxins. According to the study revealed an excess of the maximum permissible concentrations of cadmium in Gyroporus cyanescens (Lat.) by 1.6 times, Laetiporus sulphureus (Lat.) — by 1.5 times, Boletus regius (Lat.) — by 1.4 times, Xerocomus (Lat.) — by 1.7 times, Russula (Lat.) — by 6.5 times, Boletus edulis (Lat.) — by 1.7 times, Amanita rubescens (Lat.) — by 1.5 times, Leccinum scabrum (Lat.) — by 1.7 times, Leccinum aurantiacum (Lat.) — by 1.3 times and Armillaria mellea (Lat.) — by 1.7 times, while the concentration of lead, zinc and copper was lower than MPC. At the same time, it should be noted that the highest concentration of lead was found in Armillaria mellea (Lat.) compared to Cantharellus cibarius (Lat.), Gyroporus cyanescens (Lat.), Laetiporus sulphureus (Lat.), Boletus regius (Lat.), Xerocomus (Lat.), Russula (Lat.), Boletus edulis (Lat.), Amanita rubescens (Lat.), Leccinum scabrum (Lat.) and Leccinum aurantiacum (Lat.) by 1.4, 1.3, 1.07, 1.2, 1.03, 1.4, 1.2, 1.07, 1.1 and 1.3 times, respectively. The concentration of cadmium was the highest in Russula (Lat.), in comparison with Cantharellus cibarius (Lat.), Gyroporus cyanescens (Lat.), Laetiporus sulphureus (Lat.), Boletus regius (Lat.), Xerocomus (Lat.), Boletus edulis (Lat.), Amanita rubescens (Lat.), Leccinum scabrum (Lat.), Leccinum aurantiacum (Lat.) and Armillaria mellea (Lat.) by 36, 1.4, 14.4, 15.4, 12.7, 12.7, 14.4, 12.7, 16.6 and 12.7 times, respectively. The concentration of zinc was the highest in Boletus edulis (Lat.), in comparison with Cantharellus cibarius (Lat.), Gyroporus cyanescens (Lat.), Laetiporus sulphureus (Lat.), Boletus regius (Lat.), Xerocomus (Lat.), Russula (Lat.), Amanita rubescens (Lat.), Leccinum scabrum (Lat.), Leccinum aurantiacum (Lat.) and Armillaria mellea (Lat.) by 1.7, 1.6, 2.3, 1.03, 1.5, 1.02, 1.7, 2.7, 1.1 and 154 times, respectively. The concentration of copper was the highest in Armillaria mellea (Lat.), in comparison with Cantharellus cibarius (Lat.), Gyroporus cyanescens (Lat.), Laetiporus sulphureus (Lat.), Boletus regius (Lat.), Xerocomus (Lat.), Russula (Lat.), Boletus edulis (Lat.), Amanita rubescens (Lat.), Leccinum scabrum (Lat.) and Leccinum aurantiacum (Lat.) by 8.7, 4.4, 46.6, 15.5, 11.2, 4.4, 10.8, 17.5, 4 and 20 times, respectively.

Comparison of Quorum Sensing Inhibition and Antimicrobial Properties of Some Commercial and Wild Mushrooms Extracted with Supercritical CO2

Recently, bioactive properties of mushrooms have been intensively investigated, and their wealth in bioactive compounds particularly of medicinal properties have increased their consumption. In this study, quorum sensing inhibition and anti-microbial properties of some commercial and wild mushroom species were investigated. Agaricus bisporus species were purchased from three different commercial companies. Laccaria bicolor, Bovista plumbea, Lactarius deliciosus and Boletus edulis were collected from Trabzon, Turkey. Compounds extractions were performed using supercritical fluid extraction (CO2) method. Quorum sensing inhibition activity was tested using Chromobacterium violaceum as bacterium-model. Antimicrobial potential of extracts was tested using agar well diffusion method against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Enterococcus faecalis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella Typhimurium, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Proteus mirabilis, Listeria monocytogenes, Candida parapsilosis and Candida albicans. All wild mushroom extracts except for B. plumbea inhibited the violacein production of C. violaceum. L. bicolor, A. bisporus (1), B. plumbea, A. bisporus (2) extracts inhibited the bacterial growth of S. aureus. In addition, L. bicolor extract inhibited K. pneumoniae and L. monocytogenes whereas A. bisporus (2) extract inhibited P. aeruginosa. Among all mushrooms, L. bicolor extract showed remarkable results

Edible mushrooms as a ubiquitous source of essential fatty acids.

Many different species of mushrooms are consumed around the world, after harvesting from nature or cultivated under controlled conditions. Fruiting bodies of mushrooms from the Agaricus, Lentinula, and Pleurotus genera are reported as the most cultivated and commercialized ones in many countries, while wild edible mushroom species vary greatly according to the growth location. Mushrooms are nutritionally well-balanced sources of carbohydrates and proteins, with low fat concentrations, usually ranging from 0.1 to 16.3% making them very health foods. Although mushrooms are not a choice source of lipids, they contain essential fatty acids such as linoleic, oleic, and linolenic in their lipid profiles, usually as the major constituents. Therefore, compared to other food of vegetal and animal origin, mushrooms have the advantage of possessing high levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). Percentage of these fatty acids (in 100 g of total fatty acids) in mushrooms varies greatly: linoleic acid ranges from 0.0-81.1%, oleic acid between 1.0 and 60.3%, and linolenic acid from 0.0-28.8%. A global overview of the lipid composition of mushrooms is presented in this review, emphasizing the presence and levels of monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) and PUFA. Literature points that, in mushrooms, unsaturated fatty acid levels are generaly greater than those of saturated ones, regardless of the continent where the mushroom is cultivated or harvested. Comparing individually different species of the same mushroom (Agaricus bisporus, Pleurotus ostreatus, and Boletus edulis) from different continents, similar fatty acid profile is also frequently observed. The great variety of edible mushrooms found worldwide and their consistent production of fatty acids, regardless the geographic source, make mushrooms an important source of essential fat acids for a human health diet.

Boletus Edulis Mushroom Flour-Based Wheat Bread as Innovative Fortified Bakery Product

Mushroom powder was added to bread in different proportions, namely: 3%, 6% and 9%, in order to improve the nutritional properties of bread. Thus, the new products, had increased contents of protein from 6.60% to 7.79% and fat from 0.78% to 1.43%. Moreover, the content of polyphenols also increased from 39.88 to 84.46 mg GAE/100 g, and the antioxidant activity increased from 16.81% to 27.91%. According to the sensory analysis, performed by means of the hedonic test, the most appreciated bread was that fortified with 6% of mushroom powder. In terms of texture profile, the sample with 6% of mushroom powder recorded the best results. Nowadays, this product has a positive impact on the consumers, who take a growing interest in functional products, that are rich in active compounds. Bread enriched with more than 3 % mushroom powder is a product with high nutritional value.

A king amongst dwarfs: Boletus edulis forms ectomycorrhiza with dwarf willow in the Swiss Alps

The ectomycorrhizal fungus Boletus edulis, commonly known as king bolete, Steinpilz, porcini or cep, is one of the most popular edible mushrooms in Europe, North America and Asia. To produce fruiting bodies, it usually relies on the symbiotic association with deciduous or coniferous trees. Here, we report on an exceptional finding of B. edulis at an altitude of 2440 m a.s.l. in the Swiss Alps and document for the first time its ectomycorrhizal association with Salix herbacea (dwarf willow) based on molecular markers and microscopic observations.

Arsenic speciation in mushrooms using dimensional chromatography coupled to ICP-MS detector

This study concerns total arsenic (TAs) and arsenic species determination in three species of mushrooms collected in Yunnan, China. The purpose of this study was to check concentration level of arsenic in Boletus edulis, Tricholoma matsutake and Suillellus luridus, estimate arsenic bioaccessibility and find out which arsenic species occur in mushrooms to assess if they may pose a threat to human health. An analytical methodology based on ion chromatography (IC) hyphenated to inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) with dynamic reaction cell (DRC) and size exclusion chromatography (SEC) with UV–Vis detection and ICP-DRC-MS detection. Ultrasound assisted extraction (UAE), microwave assisted extraction (MAE) and enzymatic assisted extraction (EAE) were applied. Quantification of As species in extracts was performed by IC/ICP-DRC-MS in the first dimension. Slightly better extraction efficiencies were obtained for MAE (from 75% to 90%) then for UAE. EAE was used for estimation of bioaccessibility by application of a modified BARGE bioaccessibility method (UBM) for in vitro studies. Bioaccessibility values were in the ranges of 73%–102%, 74%–115% and 18%–87% for step 1 (S1), for step 2 (S2) and for step 3 (S3) of EAE, respectively. Extracts obtained after EAE were subjected to SEC-UV-Vis/ICP-DRC-MS analysis as the second dimension. The main signal was obtained in the area of a molecular mass of ∼5 kDa for all mushroom extracts. Monitoring of an 50SO+ ion confirmed that this signal comes from As-protein. In sample of Boletus edulis additional signal occurred which is classified as unknown As-compound. Both signals require identification with another analytical technique.

Predicting the timing of ecological phenomena using dates of species occurrence records: a methodological approach and test case with mushrooms.

Spatiotemporal predictions of ecological phenomena are highly useful and significant in scientific and socio-economic applications. However, the inadequate availability of ecological time-series data often impedes the development of statistical predictions. On the other hand, considerable amounts of temporally discrete biological records (commonly known as 'species occurrence records') are being stored in public databases, and often include the location and date of the observation. In this paper, we describe an approach to develop spatiotemporal predictions based on the dates and locations found in species occurrence records. The approach is based on 'time-series classification', a field of machine learning, and consists of applying a machine-learning algorithm to classify between time series representing the environmental variation that precedes the occurrence records and time series representing the full range of environmental variation that is available in the location of the records. We exemplify the application of the approach for predicting the timing of emergence of fruiting bodies of two mushroom species (Boletus edulis and Macrolepiota procera) in Europe, from 2009 to 2015. Predictions made from this approach were superior to those provided by a 'null' model representing the average seasonality of the species. Given the increased availability and information contained in species occurrence records, particularly those supplemented with photographs, the range of environmental events that could be possible to predict using this approach is vast.

Influence of some ecological variables on wild mushroom (Boletus edulis) productivity

Wild mushrooms, Boletus edulis in particular are among the most important non-wood forest products (NWFPs) all over the world due to their nutritional, medicinal, ecological and recreational importance. Increasing socioeconomic value of wild mushrooms is made consider these products as an alternative for timber. Integrating mushroom-based ecosystem services into sustainable forest management plans requires understanding of the relationships between mushroom yields and its ecological drivers. This study evaluated the influence of some ecological variables such as slope, aspect and altitude on the productivity of wild mushroom, Boletus edulis. Mushroom data was collected from 75 permanent plots in Bicik planning unit covered by mixed even aged forest. Significant differences were found among aspect and slope classes whereas there were no differences among elevation classes with one-way ANOVA analysis. According to the results lower mushroom productivity was found in the areas of north aspects or slopes between 20-30% with 6.5 kg/ha-116.7unit/ha and 33 kg/ha-333.3unit/ha respectively than the other aspect and slope groups. This study showed that to obtain general knowledge relating to the effects of more ecological factors on mushroom productivity further research efforts is needed for all valued wild mushrooms, in the different ecosystems.

Effect of forest fire prevention treatments on bacterial communities associated with productive Boletus edulis sites.

Summary Cistus ladanifer scrublands, traditionally considered as unproductive, have nonetheless been observed to produce large quantities of king bolete (Boletus edulis) fruitbodies. These pyrophytic scrublands are prone to wildfires, which severely affect fungi, hence the need for fire prevention in producing C. ladanifer scrublands. In addition, B. edulis productions have severely decreased in the last years. A deeper understanding of the B. edulis life cycle and of biotic and abiotic factors influencing sporocarp formation is needed to implement management practices that facilitate B. edulis production. For example, some bacteria likely are involved in sporocarp production, representing a key part in the triple symbiosis (plant–fungus–bacteria). In this study, we used soil DNA metabarcoding in C. ladanifer scrublands to (i) assess the effect of site history and fire prevention treatment on bacterial richness and community composition; (ii) test if there was any correlation between various taxonomic groups of bacteria and mycelial biomass and sporocarp production of B. edulis; and to (iii) identify indicator bacteria associated with the most productive B. edulis sites. Our results show that site history drives bacterial richness and community composition, while fire prevention treatments have a weaker, but still detectable effect, particularly in the senescent plots. Sporocarp production correlated positively with genera in Verrucomicrobia. Several genera, e.g. Azospirillum and Gemmatimonas, were identified as indicators of the most productive sites, suggesting a potential biological role in B. edulis fructification. This study provides a better understanding of the triple symbiosis (plant–fungus–bacteria) involved in C. ladanifer–B. edulis systems.

Mercury in stir-fried and raw mushrooms from the Boletaceae family from the geochemically anomalous region in the Midu county, China

Investigation has been made on contamination with mercury of a raw and stir-fried in moderate oil mushrooms grew in geochemically anomalous soils in south-west Asia. The “bolete” mushrooms studied were Baorangia bicolor, Boletus edulis, Boletus speciosus, Retiboletus griseus, Rugiboletus extremiorientalis and Sutorius magnificus. The batches of fresh mushrooms were respectively dried and stir-fried in moderate oil using a wok pan. Data obtained confirmed on elevated Hg content in mushrooms from the southwestern China and showed on elevated content of the element in popular mushroom dishes. The meal (100 g) made of fried “boletes” could provide for consumer Hg in dose from 0.27 to 1.4 (median 0.96) μg kg−1 body mass (RfD, reference dose is 0.3 μg kg−1 bm per day). Fried mushrooms if taken daily over a week period (100 g × 7) could provide Hg in dose from 1.9 to 9.6 (median 6.8) μg kg−1 bm. In view of the reference values for safe intake of inorganic Hg (PTWI, provisionally tolerable weekly intake is 4 μg kg−1 bm) and moderate consumption, the fried bolete mushrooms could provide Hg in doses exceeding the safe limit.

Microbiological Characteristics of Wild Edible Mushrooms and Effect of Temperature during Storage of Morchella conica

Background: The continuous worldwide increase of consumption of fresh mushrooms has registered in the recent years. The major goal of this study was to determine the microbiological characteristics of wild edible mushrooms and effect of temperature during storage of Morchella conica. Methods: Wild mushrooms of the species Boletus edulis, Cantharellus cibarius, and Leccinum aurantiacum were collected in a mixed forest of Picea abies, Betula pendula, and Pinus sylvestris located in Tartu territory, Estonia. Faecal indicators, potential pathogens, spoilage bacteria, and microfungi (yeasts and moulds) were evaluated. M. conica was microbiologically investigated for 24 days under different thermal regimes, including 4, 8, 12, 15, 20, and 28 °C. The statistical analysis was conducted with SAS 9.2 software. Results: The microbial counts of wild mushrooms, ranging from 6.81 to 7.68 log10 CFU/g for total mesophilic count, were generally higher (p&lt;0.05) than those registered for marketed samples ranging from 4.60 to 7.39 log10 CFU/g. The dynamics of total mesophilic microorganisms on M. conica stored at different temperatures indicated that stationary and death phases occurred earlier with increasing temperature and that the highest levels were registered at 28 °C at the 2nd day of storage. Conclusion: This work highlights consistent differences in terms of microbiological properties among different mushrooms species. The results clearly showed that total mesophilic populations developed at high levels quickly at temperatures more than 15 °C, but also the refrigeration did not stop the microbiological decay of mushrooms.

Developed of a Green Water Switchable Liquid–Liquid Microextraction Method for Assessment of Selenium in Food and Soft Drink Samples by Using Hydride Generation Atomic Absorption Spectrometry

In the current study, we have developed a green water switchable liquid–liquid microextraction method for separation, preconcentration, and estimation of selenium concentration in the real samples. First time introducing the water switchable liquid–liquid microextraction method to determine the trace level selenium in different food and soft drink samples. Water switchable medium was formed by the reaction of diethylenetriamine base when exposed to uniformed pressure of carbon dioxide. After being exposed to carbon dioxide, water switchable medium reversibly exchanges in two separated aqueous and organic phases. Advantages of carbon dioxide uses are cheap, environmental friendly, non-accumulation, removable, and require the opaque materials for operating container. Water switchable phenomena occurred easily from low polarity to high polarity organic solvent. Experimental variables of the water switchable liquid–liquid microextraction (LLME) method were optimized into its optimum values such as pressure, pH, centrifugation speed, extraction time, and concentration of complexing agent. The certified reference material of Canada Lake Water (TMDA-53.3) and CS-M-3 Mushroom (Boletus edulis) was used for validation of the present water switchable LLME method. Enhancement factor and limit of detection were obtained 85.5 and 0.018 μg kg−1, respectively. Developed green water switchable LLME method was successfully applied for assessment of total selenium in tomato, pumpkin seed, mushroom, garlic, rice, pistachio, chickpea, hazelnut, walnut, apple juice, and ice tea samples.

Health Innovation in Patty Products. The Role of Food Neophobia in Consumers' Non-Hypothetical Willingness to Pay, Purchase Intention and Hedonic Evaluation.

Consumers’ personality traits are key factors in understanding consumers’ choice and acceptance for health innovations in food products, in particular, food neophobia (FN). The patty product as a traditional pork product (TPP) with two innovative traditional pork products (ITPP) from the untapped pig breed (Porc Negre Mallorquí) in Spain were analysed. Patties were enriched with Porcini (Boletus edulis) using the claim “enriched with a natural source of dietary fiber Beta glucans that may contribute to improve our defence system” (ITPP1) and enriched with blueberries (Vaccinium corymbosum) using the claim “enriched with a natural source of antioxidant that may help to prevent cardiovascular diseases” (ITPP2). Two non-hypothetical discrete choice experiments were applied to investigate the importance of FN in consumers’ purchase intention (PI) and willingness to pay (WTP) before and after tasting the products. Results showed that the TPP and the ITPP2 received higher than expected PI and WTP. However, after tasting the products, consumers exhibited lower WTP for all ITPP showing the prevalence of the sensory experience on health innovation. The FN was highly related to WTP before the hedonic evaluation. However, it turned out to be non-significant, showing a homogenising role of the sensory experience in reducing the FN impact.

Elemental composition of selected species of mushrooms based on a chemometric evaluation

The aim of the study was to determine 16 elements by FAAS and ICP-AES in ca. 1500 samples of 22 species of mushrooms collected from different regions of Poland and the area around Umeå in Sweden. Chemometric techniques were applied to differentiate samples with respect to their geographical origin and interspecies differentiation. Samples of Cantharellus cibarius (Fr.), Boletus edulis (Bull.) and Leccinum scabrum (Bull.) Gray from Morąg, Augustów, the Zaborski Landscape Park, Tarnobrzeg and Umeå were discriminated by factor 1 and factor 2. Some species, i.e. Cantharellus cibarius, Boletus edulis, Boletus pinophilus (Pilát & Dermek), Leccinum aurantiacum (Bull.) Gray, Leccinum scabrum and Leccinum versipelle (Fr. & Hök) Snell from one region of Poland (Augustów or Morąg) were discriminated by K, Na, Mg, Ca, Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn and Cd. The results enabled an assessment of the hypothetical percentage realisation of the recommended dietary intake (RDA) for the bio-elements in question and of provisional tolerable weekly intakes (PTWI) of toxic metals from the consumption of 100 g of mushrooms. The most abundant element in all the mushroom samples was K, especially in Gomphidius glutinosus (Schaeff. ex Fr.) (Umeå - Sweden) and Cantharellus cibarius (Poland - Morąg). Lycoperdon perlatum (Pers.) from Poland and Sweden tended to accumulate the highest levels of Mg, Fe, Zn and Cu. The highest percentage of RDA was obtained for K, Mg and Cu. Based on the estimated PTWI, it can be concluded that no health hazard is associated with the consumption of these mushrooms.

Odor-contributing volatile compounds of wild edible Nordic mushrooms analyzed with HS–SPME–GC–MS and HS–SPME–GC–O/FID

Although Nordic wild edible mushrooms offer a wide range of different odors their scientific examination has been scarce. The aim of this study was to characterize the aroma compounds of four Finnish wild mushroom species with trained assessors using gas chromatography–olfactometry as well as gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. Headspace volatiles were extracted from sous vide cooked mushroom samples (Boletus edulis, Lactarius camphoratus, Cantharellus cibarius and Craterellus tubaeformis) using solid-phase microextraction. Odor-contributing compounds were measured with two columns of differing polarity using the detection frequency method. Compounds were identified based on reference compounds, linear retention indices, odor descriptions, and mass spectrometry. Both the volatile compound profiles and the aromagrams were distinct with characteristic compounds for each species. The results demonstrate that especially saturated and unsaturated aldehydes and ketones contribute to the odor of the studied wild mushrooms. This thorough comparison also indicates compounds linked to the sensory properties of mushrooms.

Medicinal, Nutritional, and Cosmetic Values of Macrofungi Distributed in Mazandaran Province of Northern Iran (Review).

A total of 82 species and 2 variations of medicinal and edible macrofungi (Basidiomycota and Ascomy-cota) have been collected and identified in Mazandaran Province of Northern Iran. Among these species, 58 possess medicinal and culinary properties, whereas 21 possess only medicinal properties (antiinflammatory, antimicrobial, an-timutagenic, antioxidant, antitumor, antiplatelet, hypoglycemic, hypocholesterolemic, neurotropic, hypotensive, insec-ticidal, immunomodulating, mitogenic/regenerative, spasmolytic, etc.). No medicinal effect has yet been reported for 4 species (Cantharellus infundibuliformis, Mycena inclinata, Suillus collinitus, Xerocomus porosporus) and 2 variations (Pluteus cervinus var. albus, Russula cyanoxantha var. variata) of edible species. Among the listed species, 15 (such as Auricularia auricula-judae, Hericium erinaceus, Fomes fomentarius, Flammulina velutipes, Ganoderma lucidum, Lyophyllum decastes, Pleurotus ostreatus, Tremella mesenterica) are currently used for manufacturing organic cosmetic products. The well-known mushrooms with medicinal properties (e.g., Auricularia auricula-judae, Flammulina velutipes, Hericium erinaceus, Ganoderma lucidum, G. tsugae, G. adspersum, Trametes versicolor) and excellent edibility (e.g., Boletus edulis, Cantharellus cibarius, Morchella esculenta, Pleurotus ostreatus) are widely distributed in the studied area. The biological resources of macrofungi growing in Mazandaran Province of Northern Iran possess medicinal, nutritional, and cosmetic values and could be further used for biotechnological exploitation to develop mushroom-derived pharmaceuticals, nutriceuticals, nutraceuticals, and cosmeceuticals.