Khat Production Research Articles

Opportunities and Constraints of Promoting Coffee Plantation in Southern Tigray, Ethiopia

In Ethiopia, coffee is a significant crop, but in the Tigray region, particularly southern Tigray, it receives less emphasis despite its national importance. This study investigates the status of coffee production in southern Tigray, Ethiopia, using a multistage sampling technique to gather data from 113 respondents during 2015. The goal is to identify opportunities and constraints in coffee production in the region. Data were collected using individual interviews and Focus Group Discussions, and analyzed using SPSS software and a ranking index. The study found that favorable agro ecology, fertile soils, accessibility to water, and existence of tolerant coffee varieties are the opportunities in southern Tigray, Ethiopia. However, constraints include irrigation competition, lack of training, limited input use, and shifting to khat (Catha edulis) cultivation. Additionally, most farmers do not practice pruning and rejuvenation due to lack of technical knowledge. This result in the coffee plants stand; more erect, less branched and unmanageably tall which rendering difficult to harvest berries. Hence, the study suggested that an integrated coffee production intervention is important to boost coffee production and local policy instrument is prerequisite that restrict the shifting of coffee to khat production in the study districts.

Determinants of Khat Farmers' Willingness to Pay for Agricultural Insurance

Khat farming is an important source of revenue and a possible source of potential investment in Kenya. Despite the benefits, various production and marketing risks, which negatively influence productivity, profitability, economic growth and farmers' livelihood, remains a challenge. Insurance for agricultural enterprises has the ability to open up access to essential services that boost productivity and marketing. This study aimed at determining the effect of socio-economic and institutional factors on khat farmers' willingness to pay for agricultural insurance. The data used in this study was obtained from khat farmers in Meru County, Kenya, from a sample of 323 farmers. The study employed the utility maximization theory and the double-bounded dichotomous choice model. Empirical results propose that the household size, size of land owned, awareness of agricultural insurance, credit access and the amount of khat bushes possessed by the family positively and significantly affected willingness to pay. The farmer's age and income earned from khat production negatively and significantly influenced willingness to pay. This study concluded that awareness of agricultural insurance and credit access greatly influence khat farmers' willingness to pay. The study recommends improving farmers' credit facilities to allow them access more financial capability since the study showed that the willingness to pay for insurance was proportional to credit access. The study further recommends strengthening on awareness on the importance of agricultural insurance to enhance khat farmers' involvement in agricultural insurance scheme. The results of this study will equip decision-makers with evidence-based tools to excellently market and establish demand-driven insurance products to meet the demands of khat farmers.

An investigation of the Catholic Church’s viewpoint on miraa production and consumption in Igembe Deanery, Meru Diocese

The study sought to investigate the Catholic Church’s viewpoint on miraa production and consumption in Igembe Deanery, Meru Diocese, Kenya. The study employed a descriptive research design. Data were obtained from oral interviews, focus group discussions, questionnaires, primary and secondary sources, and participant observation to ensure the study's validity and reliability. The study was based on the Structural-Functionalism and Social Conflict theory in order to establish the viewpoint of the Catholic Church on miraa production and usage in Igembe Deanery despite the CC policies on drugs of all kinds except on therapeutic grounds. A sample of 348 of the 3614 church members in Igembe Deanery was chosen for the study. Ten (10) priests, eight (8) catechists, ten (10) elders, ten (10) farmers, ten (10) traders and three hundred (300) church members from sampled parishes of Igembe Deanery were used as key informants. Descriptive statistics such as frequency, percentages, tables and the mean were used in analysing data. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) 27.0 was used to analyse the data. This study’s findings were that the Catholic Church in Igembe Deanery, Diocese of Meru, views miraa as the main source of livelihood for Christians, and miraa's economic, socio-cultural, religious, and educational functions are the main reasons for the Catholic Church in Igembe Deanery to accept Khat's production and consumption. This study recommends that the church in Africa needs to enhance efficient and effective Christianity by enhancing the inculturation of Christianity in Africa.

Traditional homegardens change to perennial monocropping of khat (Catha edulis) reduced woody species and enset conservation and climate change mitigation potentials of the Wondo Genet landscape of southern Ethiopia

Smallholder farmers in the Wondo Genet were forced to switch from long-standing, diverse traditional home gardens to monoculture khat production due to increasing population pressure-induced farmland constraints. The composition of woody species and the biomass carbon stock are thought to drop as homegardens transition from polyculture to monoculture; however there is little quantitative evidence to support this claim. This study was started to assess the effects on woody species, enset, and biomass carbon of converting traditional homegardens to a fast spreading perennial monocropping of khat (Catha edulis Forskal). In 10 m × 10 m (100m2) plots from 43 farms with neighboring land use patterns for each homegarden and khat, woody species and enset were inventoried, the total number of tree, shrub, and enset species counted, as well as the height and diameter of each species measured. To determine the biomass carbon stock of each land use type, both general and species-specific allometric equations are used. Simpson's diversity index, Shannon-Wiener, and Shannon equitability were used to evaluate the diversity of enset and woody species. There were 27 different types of woody species identified, with trees making up 67 % of the total and shrubs accounting for 33 %. Shannon, Simpson, and the richness of woody species all decreased by 46 %, 51 %, and 38 %, respectively, in comparison to residential gardens. For homegardens and khat, respectively, the mean Evenness values were 0.876 and 0.539. In homegardens, Coffea arabica was the most valuable woody species, followed by Cordia africana Lam, Persea americana, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, and Grevillea Robusta. In contrast, Catha edulis was the most valuable woody species in the Khat land use type, followed by Coffea arabica, Croton macrostachyus Del, and Cordia africana. In comparison to homegardens, the above-ground, below-ground, and total biomass carbon reported in khat land use types were reduced by 18 %, 63 %, and 42 %, respectively. Grevillea and Eucalyptus species made up 51 % of the total biomass carbon stock in the homegardens, which suggests that khat and quickly expanding fast-growing plants have displaced native woody species.Understanding the long-term effects of agro-biodiversity loss requires greater research on the implications of the decline in woody species diversity and biomass carbon stock on soil fertility and sustainable farming. This is due to the numerous functions that woody species and enset play.

Women's empowerment and child nutrition in a context of shifting livelihoods in Eastern Oromia, Ethiopia.

Agriculture, and particularly livestock and animal source foods, has been closely linked to improvements in human nutrition. Production, income, and women's empowerment improve household food security and child nutritional outcomes in interacting ways. Khat production in Eastern Ethiopia is changing the economic and livelihood landscape for communities that have traditionally relied upon small-scale mixed agriculture and livestock production. How this shifting livelihood landscape and the empowerment of women in these communities are affecting nutritional outcomes has not been investigated. Using cross-sectional data collected during formative research for the Campylobacter Genomics and Environmental Enteric Dysfunction (CAGED) project, we developed models to examine the roles of livelihood activities, including livestock production, staple crop production, and khat production, and women's empowerment in child nutrition outcomes. Survey participants were randomly selected mothers of children aged 10-15 months from Haramaya district, Eastern Hararghe, Oromia, Ethiopia. Nested logistic regression models were performed for each nutrition outcome: children's animal source food consumption, children's dietary diversity, and child stunting, wasting, and underweight. Explanatory variables included those for livelihood (tropical livestock unit, crop production, and khat production ladder) and women's empowerment (as indicated by domains of the Women's Empowerment in Agriculture Index), and covariates including child sex, mother's age, mother's education, assets, income, and kebele. Results indicated that khat production and tropical livestock units were not significantly associated with any of the child nutrition outcomes. However, results did indicate that the odds of reporting child animal source food consumption in households where the mother was empowered in the leadership domain was 3.33 times that in households where the mother wasn't (p < 0.05). In addition, the odds of having a stunted child in households where the mother was empowered in the time domain was 2.68 times that in households where the mother wasn't (p < 0.05). The results from this study both support and complicate the existing literature on the associations between women's empowerment in agriculture and child nutrition outcomes, underscoring the important role that livelihood, contextual factors, and location may have on the complex relationship between empowerment domains and nutritional outcomes.

Parental khat use and early childhood growth status in Eastern Ethiopia.

Adult chewing of the stimulant plant khat (Catha edulis) has an unclear relationship with child growth outcomes. Contradictory study conclusions because habitual khat chewing covary with increased household income from khat production. Disentangling the association of parental khat use, household khat production, and child nutritional status and growth markers. Bayesian analysis was applied to survey data for 2340 households containing 2760 children aged 24-60 months in a population-representative geographic sampling of two districts in Eastern Ethiopia, a khat chewing and producing region. Stunting effects were more evident than wasting; the negative child growth effect of khat chewing persisted regardless of household khat production; maternal chewing particularly mattered for child growth delays. This exploratory analysis suggests that future studies should target the interactions of khat chewing practices with gendered performances of child care/feeding responsibilities.

Climate change induced a progressive shift of livelihood from cereal towards Khat (Chata edulis) production in eastern Ethiopia

Global climate change affects smallholders in sub-Saharan Africa. To cope with the changing situation, farmers employ adaptation strategies such as adjusting their livelihoods. The objective of this research was to evaluate the effects of climate change on the gradual transition in livelihood from cereal production to Khat plantation in west Harareghe, Ethiopia. Data was gathered through interviews with 273 households, 8, focus groups, and 12 key informants. Descriptive statistics and an econometric model were used to analyze quantitative data, whereas content analysis with step preprocesses was utilized to analyze and report qualitative data. . The farm households responded that climatic extremes are posing severe impacts on soil fertility (80%), crop production (93%), livestock production (91%), water scarcity (92%), and adaptive capacity of the farmers (81%). As a result, about 86% of the farmers' have been putting more emphasis and progressively shifting their livelihood from cereal to Khat (Chata edulis) crop plantation. Asides from the shrinking livelihood due to climatic shocks, high market access with better price and profitability, drought and water scarcity tolerance, ability to grow in degraded land, suitability for intercropping and three to five times harvest in a year are mentioned as the blessings attracted farmers’ to shift to Khat production. To reduce susceptibility to climate change impacts, approximately 81%, 78%, and 77% of framers, respectively, used managerial (e.g., intercropping and petty trade), technological (e.g., terracing and improved crop variety), and policy-driven (i.e., productive safety net program) strategies. In addition to this, agro-ecology, yield reduction, wealth, perceived on set of rain, soil infertility, access to markets and credit, institutional participation, land size, dependency ratio, irrigation, and access to early warning systems were found to significantly influence the adoption decision of farmers in the study area. Therefore, policy makers and planners are advised to design techniques to manage climate-induced extreme episodes and produce area specific strategies capable to increase the productivity of cereal crop and livestock.

Pattern and outcome of acute organophosphate poisoning at health facilities of Harari Region, Eastern Ethiopia

Introduction: Pesticides are frequently used by plant cultivars to control pests that could affect yield. Although many local farmers in Eastern Ethiopia use organophosphate insecticides extensively for the production of khat, the pattern and treatment outcome of acute poisoning of these organophosphates has been poorly quantified and reported in this region. Materials and Method: A cross-sectional study design was employed at two public hospitals found in Harari region, Ethiopia. The data were collected through face-to-face interviews and card review, then analyzed with SPSS version 20. Pearson’s Chi-square test was used to compare independent variables with the treatment outcome. Statistical significance is defined at 95% confidence interval of odds ratio not including 1 or p &lt; 0.05. Results: A total of 135 cases of organophosphate were admitted in the emergency departments of the hospitals during the study period. 42.2% of participants were adolescents (age: 11–20 years) while the mean age of all participants was 18.8 ± 12.9 years with a range of 1–61 years. 73.7% of the study participants were rural residents. The result showed that 47.4% of the cases were exposed to the poison accidentally. Family disharmony was the common reason among cases poisoned intentionally. The mean time elapsed between poisoning and reaching the health facility was 3.1 h. Atropine was administered for 47% of the cases. About 11% of cases expired following the poison. The home remedy given, lag time, and residency were found to be factors significantly related to poor treatment outcomes. Conclusion: Easy availability, low cost, and excessive popularity of organophosphate use as pesticides in Eastern Ethiopia have increased the incidence of ingestion, resulting in increasing intentional and unintentional poisoning. In the present study, accidental exposure accounts for 47.4%.

Socioeconomic, Health, and Missiological Implications of Khat in East Africa

Background: Khat is a stimulant plant widely cultivated in East Africa and Yemen. Millions of people chew khat habitually to satiate their cravings for it. The plant generates a very high income for millions of farmers and East African governments. This study explored the economic, social, and health implications of khat use and its missiological implications.&#x0D; Method: This study used a qualitative approach to explore the effects of khat consumption in East Africa. Secondary data and interviews were the main sources of data. The study participants comprised Seventh-day Adventist pastors and other church members from Kenya and Ethiopia. &#x0D; Results: Khat chewing and production have significant socioeconomic and health implications in East African communities. Moreover, khat production and consumption negatively affect the mission of Seventh-day Adventists in the region.&#x0D; Conclusion: Based on the results, several suggestions are provided to address the dangers of khat cultivation and consumption.

Rationale behind Roman catholic church’s toleration of miraa production and consumption in Igembe deanery, Meru diocese, Kenya

This study sought to find out the rationale behind Roman Catholic Church’s toleration of miraa production and consumption in Igembe Deanery, Meru diocese, Kenya. The Roman Catholic Church has been a leading voice in opposing the use of pharmaceuticals outside of medical necessity in every society it has encountered. The Roman Catholic Church has taken a hard-line approach against drug legalisation, including recreational drugs. On the contrary, in Igembe Deanery, the Meru Diocese of the Roman Catholic Church, a contentious drug that many consider a drug, khat (Miraa) production and use is tolerated. The study employed a descriptive research design. Data were obtained from questionnaires, oral interviews, focus group discussion, participant observation, and primary and secondary sources to ensure the reliability and validity of the study. The study’s findings were that the economic, social, cultural, religious, and educational benefits of Miraa in Igembe Deanery are all the reasons for the Roman Catholic Church in Igembe Deanery to tolerate Miraa farming, trade and consumption in the study area. This study concludes that Miraa production and consumption in Igembe Deanery in Meru Diocese is due to its huge social, economic, and religious benefits to the local people.

The effect of khat cultivation on rural households' income in Bahir Dar Zuria District, Northwest Ethiopia.

The study was conducted to evaluate the effect of khat cultivation on rural households’ income in the Bahir Dar Zuria district using cross-sectional data collected from 180 randomly selected respondents, and supported by focus group discussions in two districts of northwest Ethiopia. The data were analyzed by simple descriptive statistics and beta regression. Results from descriptive statistics show that khat contributes the largest (51%) of farmers’ income, followed by crop sale (33%), sale of livestock and their products (9%), and off-farm and non-farm activities (7%), Empirical findings from the Beta regression model also show that farming experience, education status, the proportion of land allocated for khat cultivation, total working capital of the household, the density of khat trees planted per hectare, and participation in off-farm and non-farm activity have a significant and positive effect on the proportion of khat income of the households. On the contrary, livestock holding, total asset ownership, and access to mobile phones have a significant and negative influence on the proportion of annual khat income of the households. Hence, the cultivation of khat can have a significant effect on the improvement of rural households’ income and standard of living in the districts. However, increased khat production have also serious implications on the market, water resources, and human health. Thus, policymakers need to come up together to understand and devise proper running mechanisms for these controversies of khat production in association with economic, social, and health implications.

Impact of Khat Production and Marketing on the Livelihood of Smallholder Households in Ethiopia

Khat, Ethiopia’s largest export cash crop, is the backbone of the Ethiopian economy. However, Ethiopia has not yet fully promoted its position as the utmost producer and exporter of khat in a global market because of its different policy discourses and illegal trade issues on khat production. The life of many smallholder households relies on khat production and its marketing in a country. Hence for thus, some information has been gathered on different aspects of khat with the objectives of reviewing khat’s impacts on the livelihood of smallholder farmers, its production status, and marketing constraints in Ethiopia. To review these objectives, data from CSA, and different published materials on khat were used. According to the review, khat production has a positive impact on securing household food insecurity and improving the livelihood status of smallholder farmers, and the largest foreign exchange-earning cash crops. However, it is exploited almost in all parts of a country’s government policy discourse on khat production and its trade legal issues, lack of infrastructure, zero access to extension services, zero tangible value addition, inadequate technology transfer, and research, and price volatility because of product perishability behavior are among major constraints threatened in khat production in Ethiopia. Its vulnerable and corrupted marketing system, zero market promotion and political dichotomy, long market chain, chronic market information, and unfair price were reported by different scholars as major problems of khat marketing in Ethiopia. From these probs: The government should analyze why and its impact on khat production discourse policy on the livelihood of smallholder households and overlook positive policy proclamation. Encouraging research and technology transfer to transform products into manufacturing industries, enhancing infrastructural and institutional facilities, and improving khat production product technologies through development, and khat production agribusiness industry transformation, institutionalizing its marketing arrangement and other related agronomic practices are among the major recommendations to forward so.

Prevalence of Khat (Catha edulis) Chewing and Its Determinants: A Respondent-Driven Survey from Hossana, Ethiopia.

BackgroundEthiopia is a leading khat producer in East Africa, and almost all regions are involved in khat production. Hossana, a small town in Southern Ethiopia, is also actively involved in khat production and its use. However, very few studies have been conducted to investigate the habit of khat chewing in this area. This study was conducted to assess the prevalence and predictors of khat chewing among Hossana residents.MethodsThe study was conducted on 1700 individuals in Hossana town from March 2018 to June 2019. A structured pre-tested self-administered questionnaire was designed and used for data collection. Descriptive statistics and logistic regression were carried out to study the prevalence and predictors of khat chewing in the study area.ResultsThe overall prevalence of khat chewing among the respondents was 58.0% (95% CI 53.4–63.3) of which 68.4% were daily khat users and 31.5% used it occasionally. About 24.7% of females and 75.2% of males had chewed khat. Muslim religion (AOR 2.37; 95% CI 1.58–4.32), male gender (AOR 3.48; 95% CI 2.16–5.61), Older age (AOR 1.36; 95% CI 0.84–2.21), participants having habitual khat chewing friends or a khat chewer family associate (OR 1.70; 95% CI 1.17–2.20) were found to be independent predictors of chewing.ConclusionSignificant portion of the population in the study area chew khat. Khat use is significantly associated with the Muslim religion, gender, age, and habit of family and friends. Further studies with larger demographic area are warranted from the study area to reproduce these findings.

A Historical Overview of Khat Production in Ethiopia

This paper tries to study the history of Khat production and expansion in Ethiopia. Khat has been consumed in Ethiopia for long period of time. Some sources moreover, mention Ethiopia as the origin of Khat production and the country that takes the lion share of Khat export to the rest of the world currently. The above mentioned notion has triggered the researcher to look at the history of this herbal and its production, consumption and contemporary use in Ethiopia. Different qualitative data collection techniques have been employed to get in to the bottom of the abovementioned topic. Here the researcher has conducted interview with elders who are believed to narrate the history of Khat, farmers who primary production has been Khat and consumers who use to consume Khat for long period of time. Moreover, secondary source of data like books, articles and term papers are also used to grasp the necessary information. After extensive data collection scheme and analysis, the researcher has reached into a conclusion that ancient Ethiopian rulers have been presented Khat as a gift for leaders of the south Arabia and this led the researcher to conclude that Ethiopia is one of the origin places of Khat if not the only country. Ethiopia is still the biggest Khat producing country with immense varieties that are mentioned inside this paper. Ethiopia could also be mentioned as the country where Khat is consumed immensely.

Exposure and Health Risk Assessment of Farmers to DDT during Khat Production in Chiro Woreda, West Hararghe Zone: Ethiopia

This research work assesses exposure and health risk of farmers using DDT during Khat production and farmer’s knowledge and perception towards the toxicity of pesticides sprayed on Khat. Personal interviews were completed with a random and purposive sample of 85 farmers, 5 health workers/officers/ and 5 agricultural workers /officers/. The observed study shows there is no any personal protective device (PPD) in the study area at all, most farmers in the study area have no access to technical information on proper use of pesticides. In this study, thus, assessment of possible health risks of using DDT and farmers’ perception towards toxicity of pesticides used on Khat was undertaken. Results of interviews and questionnaires showed that majority of farmers in Chiro Woreda use DDT and other unknown pesticides to grow their Khat and majority of them mix DDT and other pesticides, especially malathion. Most of the farmers are illiterate and could not read and understand instruction on pesticides packages. Most of the interviewed farmers are chewers of Khat and have more than 15 years experience in spraying pesticides on Khat. Local markets, pesticides imported through smuggling, local health and agricultural bureaus were seen to be sources of DDT and other pesticides used on Khat. Most of the farmers have misperception on the toxicity of pesticides used on Khat. The farmers that sprayed Khat have also developed new health symptoms that were not known before the start of using DDT and other pesticides. The main purposes why farmers use pesticides on Khat are to control Khat pests that hinder its normal growth. Farmers that produce Khat with more chemical pesticides, in particular, experience acute adverse effects on the digestive system such as stomach irritation, bulging of belly, loss of appetite, and chronic adverse health effects including mouth dryness, headaches, and other related problems. Farmers also who chew homemade Khat on which they sprayed chemical pesticides by themselves may have the highest possible health hazards. It is concluded that chewing Khat grown with chemical pesticides causes considerable adverse health effects in human beings as well as to consuming animals. However, majority of the farmers believe that advantages of using DDT and other pesticides on Khat overweighed its effects. In general, there is no any satisfactory intervention to tackle these problems. The main objective of this study was to investigate exposure and possible health risks of farmers using DDT and other pesticides on Khat (Catha edulis), and to assesses the knowledge, perception and awareness of farmers towards toxicity of pesticides used during Khat production.

The Conceptualization of Khat, Its Production and Its Socio-Economic Implications in Eastern Ethiopia

This research tries to analyze the conceptualization, production and socio-economic implication of Khat in eastern parts of Ethiopia. Different reasons have triggered the researcher to do this research. The growing number of khat consumers, the lack of scientifically studies research on this specific issue and the emotional attachment that the researcher has with both the study area and the herbal are some of the triggering factors for writing this manuscript. The researcher has stayed in the major khat producing areas of eastern Ethiopia from December 23, 2018 to January 28, 2019. In this time, the researcher did both formal and informal conversation with khat producing farmers, consumers and traders, observed plots where khat is produced and did interview with elders who are believed to know the history and the influence of khat in the region. Moreover, as an anthropologist, the researcher has participated in social gathering where khat is consumed and did participant observation with the researched communities in the region. All informants were selected purposely based on their affiliation to the topic and their presumable knowledge of the topic as well. After intensive data collection, the researcher came up with findings that illustrate the conceptualization of khat, its production and ad its socio-economic impact in the eastern part of the country. Ethiopia.

English

Agriculture is the most important economic activity and employment opportunity in Ethiopia. Globally, the country is the largest producer of Khat. The producers and consumers of Khat are increasing combined with earning for the national exports. Despite several controversies have continued on Khat practice, the legal stance of the Ethiopian government and studies on environmental impact are minimal. The review results reveal that agro-climates in different parts of Ethiopia are suitable for Khat production. The plant cultivation has come to common and expanded from southeastern to northwestern part of the country since the 1990s. Various anthropogenic and edaphic factors have contributed for the expansion of Khat production. Khat has substantial economic advantages though it has adverse implications on livestock production, cereal crops and water resource. Khat has undesirable effects on health, social, and environment followed by less empowering the economic capacity of women. Nervous problems, extra marital affairs, sexual abuse, HIV/AIDS, corruption, suicide, addiction, and car accidents are among the detrimental effects of Khat practice on health and social relations. Thus, researchers, policy makers, scholars, and higher learning institutions need to come together to minimize the controversies, alleviate heated debates and disclose public discourses on Khat practice in Ethiopia. Key words: Agriculture, Ethiopia, Khat, origin, prevalence, public discourse. &nbsp

Adoption of new technologies by smallholder farmers: the contributions of extension, research institutes, cooperatives, and access to cash for improving tef production in Ethiopia

Agricultural intensification and extensification are standard responses to ecological and economic vulnerability among smallholder communities. Climate change has exacerbated this vulnerability and thrown the complexity of and critical need for managing a healthy natural resource base while increasing on-farm productivity into sharp light. Sustainable intensification is one of many mechanisms for accomplishing this balancing act. This study examines the adoption of sustainable intensification practices, namely input packages focused on tef row planting—designed to boost yield and promote more efficient use of inputs. This study utilized a mix methods approach to survey 115 smallholder farmers in the South Wollo zone of the Amhara region in Ethiopia. This study found that cash and capital, more so than contact with the AIS, influenced farmers’ decisions to adopt row planting input packages. Khat production was an important source of cash for inputs and was more likely to be available to farmers with irrigation schemes. Long-term, farmers who cultivate khat may not successfully engage in SI, as khat replaces traditional food crop production in the region. Yet, for farmers who do not grow khat, long-term investment in SI practices is unlikely unless access to affordable credit options is improved.

Khat: Adaptive Community Resilience Strategy or Short‐Sighted Money Maker?

AbstractKhat (Catha edulis) is a perennial bush originating in East Africa. This shrub's leaves and twigs are sold in East African and Middle Eastern markets for their narcotic effect. Khat has become an exceedingly popular topic in both the health and policy arenas, with a growing body of literature related to cardiovascular and oral health, mental health and cognitive processes, and monitoring and policy related to khat. However, there has been relatively little research on khat's association with food security, which is foundational to human health and well‐being, or its place in the agrifood system. Furthermore, research linking khat to validated cross‐cultural measures of food security is nonexistent. The majority of studies contextualizing khat production in terms of food security focus on khat's displacement of food crops. This study surveyed 115 farmers in the Amhara region of Ethiopia. Data revealed khat to be positively associated with food security. However, there is reason for caution given the documented potential for poor health outcomes related to khat consumption and the heavy reliance on irrigation for intensive khat production, combined with the unregulated nature of water withdrawals in Ethiopia. Poor health and degradation of water and soil resources are key vulnerability pathways in community resilience.

Khat Production and Consumption; Its Implication on Land Area Used for Crop Production and Crop Variety Production among Rural Household of Ethiopia

Khat (Catha edulis Forsk), is a stimulant plant grown mainly in Ethiopia, Yemen and Kenya. Currently it is a ubiquitous commodity cultivated and chewed; imbedded in Ethiopian culture and agriculture. In a circumstance of land degradation and scarcity farmers consider Khat as a better small-scale faming alternative; however land disposition for Khat-mono-cropping can be a disadvantage. Adjusting for the sets of alternatives on the land area to be used for crop production and on-farm crop variety is a factor that determines Khat farmers’ household sustainable agriculture and livelihood. The dynamics in relation with rural households Khat production/consumption is not well explored. This study sets out to document the implication of farmers’ choice of Khat production and / or consumption on land use for crop production and crop variety production in rural households of Ethiopia. A panel survey using quantitative method was adopted. Data were collected in two regions of Ethiopia using pre-tested interviewer-administered questionnaire using Open Data Kit (ODK). Data were exported to STATA version SE 12(Stata Corp LP, College Station, Texas, USA). Multivariable linear regression model was run. A significantly higher proportion of Khat consumers were producers (P<0.001). Land size used for crop production increased by 0.2 units (hectares) for Khat consumers and producers as compared with No-Khat consumers and no-Khat producers’ households (β=0.20, p<0.001). The likely hood of having variety of crops is two times higher for Khat consumer and Khat producer households as compared with no-Khat consumers and no-Khat producers households (AOR: 2.00 [95%CI: 1.38, 2.91], p<0.001). Land tenure system and agricultural policy and interventions should consider this Khat cropping effect among households in Khat producing areas of the country. Khat cultivation and use should be understood in a proper context in association with economical; social, cultural and environmental reality.