Key Ecological Function Research Articles

Spatial-Temporal Variation Characteristics and Influencing Factors of Vegetation in the Yellow River Basin from 2000 to 2019

Vegetation is a crucial and intuitive index that can be used to evaluate the ecological status. Since the 20th century, land use has changed significantly in Yellow River Basin (YRB), along with great changes of vegetation, serious soil erosion, and gradual ecological deterioration. To improve the ecological environment in the YRB, China has carried out a series of ecological protection projects since the 1970s. Therefore, long-term sequence monitoring of vegetation in YRB is necessary to show the conservation effect and better support the further protection and restoration. This study analysed vegetation changes from 2000 to 2019 based on an annual mean fractional vegetation cover (FVC) dataset. The Theil–Sen median trend analysis method was used to analyse trends in FVC. The results showed that the vegetation in the YRB has improved significantly, with an average annual growth rate of 0.65%, and the ‘green line’ of vegetation has moved approximately 300 km westward. The influence of climate on vegetation is essential; therefore, this study also analysed the influence of temperature and precipitation on vegetation over time and space. Ecological control and afforestation are important anthropogenic factors that affect vegetation. The growth trend (0.6%/a) in key ecological function regions (KEFRs) was the fastest, and even though the protection measures are not strict, they provide space for afforestation. The China Ecological Conservation Red Line (CECRL) and the national nature reserves (NNRs) showed relatively flat trends. Ecological afforestation projects were closely correlated with the growth trend of the FVC. The correlation between FVC and the intensity of ecological engineering was significant in typical areas.

Designing a path for the sustainable development of key ecological function zones: A case study of southwest China

The Chinese government has designated areas with critically important ecosystems as key ecological function zones (KEFZs) under restrictive development regimes to maintain and improve their supplies of ecological products and services. A strategy of sustainable development is required for KEFZs in southwest China, given their fragile eco-environments, important eco-functions, and lagging economies. This study aimed to identify and compare changes in ecological security, economic development, and the extent of their coordination in KEFZs and non-KEFZs in southwest China in 2010, 2015 and 2018 (i.e., before and after the policy of restricted development was introduced). The assessment systems of ecological security and economic development were constructed for assessing these areas. A coupling coordination degree (CCD) model was used to evaluate coordination levels between ecological security and economic development. Overall, the results indicated that the levels of ecological security in KEFZs were exceeded non-KEFZs. In 2010, KEFZs and non-KEFZs evidenced similar levels of economic development and CCDs. The economic development of KEFZs was lagging behind that of non-KEFZs after restrictive development regimes in KEFZs. The slow economic growth further hindered the improvement of the coordination between ecological security and economic development for KEFZs. The gaps between KEFZs and non-KEFZs regarding economic development and coordination levels were widening. The study provided some strategies for the sustainable development of southwest China’s KEFZs, including the development of clean resources, the strategy of partial development and comprehensive environmental protection, the formulation of lists of allowed, restricted and prohibited industries, and effective utilization of ecological compensation policies.

Multi-scenario simulation of ecosystem service value for optimization of land use in the Sichuan-Yunnan ecological barrier, China

Key ecological function areas are responsible for protecting and restoring ecosystems and alleviating regional ecological deterioration. Revealing the inherent relationship between land use/cover (LULC) change and ecosystem service value (ESV) in such areas is of great significance for sustainable development. We used LULC and other data from 2000, 2010, and 2018 to analyze the spatiotemporal evolution of ESV in China’s Sichuan-Yunnan Ecological Barrier based on six LULC types: Farmland, Forest, Grassland, Water, Built-up land, and Other. With the goal of maximizing both ESV and economic benefits, we used coupled gray multi-objective optimization (GMOP) and patch-generating land-use simulation (PLUS) models to assess three scenarios (business-as-usual, BAU; ecological development priority, EDP; and ecological and economic balance, EEB) in terms of the spatial distribution and optimization of LULC structure in 2026. The study area was dominated by Forest and Grassland, with major LULC changes from 2000 to 2018 mainly deriving from transfers between Farmland, Forest, and Grassland along with Farmland conversion to Built-up land. ESV trended upward during the study period, mainly due to contributions from Forest and Water. Under EDP scenario in 2026, the expansion Built-up land was eased, which expansion area is the smallest among the 3 scenarios at 643.03 km2, the Forest area increased by 673.80 km2, the overall LULC structure was improved, and the total ESV increased by 2.502 billion yuan. Under EEB scenario, Forest area decreased by 405.95 km2, but the economic benefits increased remarkably, showing the effect of supporting larger-scale economic growth with less land resource consumption. Under EDP scenario, ESV changes were most dramatic at local scales. The use of coupled GMOP-PLUS models for LULC optimization allowed improved assessment of social, economic, and environmental factors and provided a new way to address key technical problem in land-use planning in large-scale ecological function areas.

Ecological security evaluation and ecological regulation approach of East-Liao River basin based on ecological function area

Watershed ecological security provides the basic guarantee of regional sustainable development; thus, reliable watershed ecological security evaluation is of great significance in revealing the watershed ecological security status and promoting the healthy development of the watershed society and ecological environment. To construct the ecological function area, this study used the East-Liao River basin as the analysis object and discussed the delimitation method of ecological security evaluation, which provided the reference and basis for studying and exploring the optimal ecological regulation method of the basin. The following results were obtained: from 2000 to 2020, the regions with lower ecological security index changed from northwest to southeast of the watershed, and presented the spatial distribution of “unsafe” → “generally safe” → “relatively safe” → “safe”, with the center of gravity concentrated in the middle of the watershed; the spatial differences of ecological security became significant with the addition of ecological function zones, and they show a certain spatial aggregation trend; from 2000 to 2020, the ecological security level was predominantly safer, and the distribution of gravity center showed a circular state; the ecological security level of the watershed can be improved by adjusting the proportion of regional land use types. According to the results, countermeasures and approaches of watershed ecological security regulation were suggested, and four subareas were established: forbidden development zones, traditional utilization zones, ecologically sensitive/fragile zones, and key ecological function zones; this would provide a basis for further analysis of environmental governance in the East-Liao River basin of Jilin Province. Nevertheless, the countermeasures and approaches of ecological security regulation proposed in this study will also be useful for land use planning and runoff management in other watersheds around the world.

Functional groups in piscivorous fishes.

Piscivory is a key ecological function in aquatic ecosystems, mediating energy flow within trophic networks. However, our understanding of the nature of piscivory is limited; we currently lack an empirical assessment of the dynamics of prey capture and how this differs between piscivores. We therefore conducted aquarium‐based performance experiments, to test the feeding abilities of 19 piscivorous fish species. We quantified their feeding morphology, striking, capturing, and processing behavior. We identify two major functional groups: grabbers and engulfers. Grabbers are characterized by horizontal, long‐distance strikes, capturing their prey tailfirst and subsequently processing their prey using their oral jaw teeth. Engulfers strike from short distances, from high angles above or below their prey, engulfing their prey and swallowing their prey whole. Based on a meta‐analysis of 2,209 published in situ predator–prey relationships in marine and freshwater aquatic environments, we show resource partitioning between grabbers and engulfers. Our results provide a functional classification for piscivorous fishes delineating patterns, which transcend habitats, that may help explain size structures in fish communities.

Gradient characteristics of China's land use patterns and identification of the east-west natural-socio-economic transitional zone for national spatial planning

Countries and regions with vast territory tend to have economic gradients and uneven land use pattern. Ecological sensitive zones, transitional zones and state poverty counties have been found near the Hu Huanyong Line (Hu Line) of China in previous studies. However, there is little knowledge about the identification of a comprehensive transitional zone that considers natural and socio-economic elements from national scale. Based on exploring gradient characteristics of land use patterns and the driving factors behind them, we propose a quantitative identification framework of natural-socio-economic transitional zone via multi-source data and methods of gradient analysis and change-point analysis. Taking China as an example, this study showed evidence of the discontinuity in each factor between the east and the west, and identified an east-west natural-socio-economic transitional zone (EWNSETZ) along the Hu Line. The EWNSETZ, determined by combining the integrated abrupt change zone of natural and socio-economic factors with the farming-pastoral ecotone (FPE), accounted for about 1/5 of China’s total land area and had more balanced distribution of land use types but more fragile environment and inferior combination of resources. Measures such as completing ecological compensation mechanism, developing tourism and green industries, increasing the supply of water resources and speeding up the construction of infrastructure and facilities can be used to promote the ecological-economic coordinated development of the EWNSETZ and eventually to drive the development of the western region. In particular, comprehensively consider the natural geographical conditions, key ecological function areas distribution and ecosystem services supply and demand of the EWNSETZ, the strategic orientation in its different parts should be focusing on different key points.

Species identity drives ecosystem function in a subsidy-dependent coastal ecosystem.

Declines in species diversity carry profound implications for ecosystem functioning. Communities of primary producers and consumers interact on evolutionary as well as ecological time scales, shaping complex relationships between biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. In subsidized ecosystems, resource inputs are independent of consumer actions, offering a simplified view of the relationship between species diversity and function for higher trophic levels. With food webs supported by substantial but variable inputs of detritus from adjacent marine ecosystems, sandy beaches are classic examples of subsidized ecosystems. We investigated effects of consumer species diversity and identity on a key ecological function, consumption of kelp wrack from nearshore giant kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera) forests. We assessed effects of species richness on kelp consumption by experimentally manipulating richness of six common species of invertebrate detritivores in laboratory mesocosms and conducting field assays of kelp consumption on beaches. Consumer richness had no effect on kelp consumption in the field and a slight negative effect in laboratory experiments. Kelp consumption was most strongly affected by the species composition of the detritivore community. Species identity and body size of intertidal detritivores drove variation in kelp consumption rates in both experiments and field assays. Our results provide further evidence that species traits, rather than richness per se, influence ecosystem function most, particularly in detrital-based food webs with high functional redundancy across species. On sandy beaches, where biodiversity is threatened by rising sea levels and expanding development, our findings suggest that loss of large-bodied consumer species could disproportionally impact ecosystem function.

Assessment of the benefit diffusion of windbreak and sand fixation service in National Key Ecological Function areas in China

• The transregional flow of ES results in the diffusion of ES benefits. • The benefit diffusion of WSFS can be simulated by combining HYSPLIT and RWEQ. • The benefits of WSFS in NKEFAs can spread beyond China, mainly extending to the East Asian region. • The benefit diffusion amount of the WSFS had obvious distance attenuation characteristics. The transregional flow of ecosystem services (ESs) results in the diffusion of ES benefits. Many National Key Ecological Function Areas (NKEFAs) are located in northwestern China, which faces a high risk of wind erosion. Therefore, the windbreak and sand fixation service (WSFS) is important not only for the local NKEFAs but also for the downwind areas. This study assessed the benefit diffusion process of the WSFS in NKEFAs by combining the Hybrid Single-Particle Lagrangian Integrated Trajectory (HYSPLIT) and the Revised Wind Erosion Equation (RWEQ) models. In 2010, 1689 WSFS diffusion paths were simulated first by using HYSPLIT, with the path directions varying from northeast to east and southeast and passing through most areas of northern China. By interpolating the diffusion paths, the beneficiary areas of the WSFS amounted to 617.81 × 10 4 –1570.99 × 10 4 km 2 in 2010 and spread beyond China, mainly extending to the East Asian region. Incorporation of the RWEQ model showed that the amount of WSFS benefit diffusion from each NKEFA varied greatly and was mainly concentrated in northeastern, central or northwestern China. In addition, the distribution frequency of the diffusion paths and the benefit diffusion effects exhibit obvious distance attenuation characteristics. Based on this study, we can establish a direct connection between the WSFS in the NKEFAs and the downwind beneficiary areas and provide a reference for the interregional ecological compensation policy, thereby guaranteeing the sustainable development of both wind erosion areas and the downwind affected areas.

Assessing Controversial Desertification Prevention Policies in Ecologically Fragile and Deeply Impoverished Areas: A Case Study of Marginal Parts of the Taklimakan Desert, China

Overgrazing plays an important role in the grassland desertification in global drylands. The effectiveness of policies related to grazing directly affects efforts to combat desertification and sustainable rangeland management. However, there remain questions around how the interplay of grassland desertification and poverty affects the implementation of policies. To reveal the effectiveness of the desertification prevention policy that delineates national key ecological function areas (NKEFAs), the main objective was to perform a sustainability assessment and on-site investigation in Northwest China. A parallel index system, which integrates the indices for economic input–output and material supply–demand to represent sustainability, and the indices for interview records from managers and questionnaires from residents to represent the effectiveness of NKEFA policy, was proposed to comprehensively judge the performance of NKEFA policy, and the underlying causes behind undesirable effects were further analyzed. The results indicate that (1) the performance of desertification control policy is related to socioeconomic conditions—a few counties with increased socioeconomic and land resource sustainability (SLS) are peri-urban or resource-rich; (2) the fact that the socioeconomic benefits of the NKEFA policy are not obvious to impoverished farmers greatly reduces their enthusiasm for preventing desertification; and (3) the livelihood needs and defective ecological compensation force residents with underdeveloped comprehensive quality to overdevelop or use grassland resources even though they have received subsidies for conserving grassland. It is concluded that poverty and grassland desertification interact to influence potential policy performance. Our analysis can help decision makers to formulate desertification control policies with multiple goals to achieve sustainable performance in an economy–ecology system.

Landscape ecological risk assessment and influencing factors in ecological conservation area in Sichuan-Yunnan provinces, China.

It is important for preventing and resolving landscape ecology risk and promoting regional sustainable development to explore the characteristics of temporal and spatial variations of landscape ecology risk of key ecological function zone and to reveal the potential influence of human activity on aggravation of landscape ecological risk. Based on the land cover data of 2000, 2010, and 2020, we constructed a model of risk assessment on landscape ecology, incorporating a landscape index and an assessment of ecological vulnerability, with the support of ArcGIS 10.8 and Fragstats 4.2. The spatial analysis method was used to examine the temporal and spatial variations of landscape ecology risk in ecological conservation in Sichuan-Yunnan provinces. We used the Geodetector to quantify the impacts of natural and social-economy factors in different ranges of region on landscape ecological risk. The results showed that from 2000 to 2020, the area of artificial land surface, water body, shrubland in the study area showed an upward trend, while the area of forest, cultivated land, grassland, wetlands, barren land, and permanent snow cover and glacier showed an downward trend. There was remarkable transfer of landscape types among forest, grassland and cultivated land, especially for the transfer from cultivated land to artificial surface. The mean value of landscape ecological risk had been reducing. The classes of landscape ecological risk was consistent with the changes and shifts of landscape. Landscape ecological risk was mainly at lower, low, and high levels in ecological conservation in Sichuan-Yunnan provinces. Natural factors, including elevation and precipitation, generally drove the temporal-spatial variations of landscape ecological risk. In addition, factors such as economy, society and regional accessibility could contribute to prominent impacts on local area suffering from pejorative risk.

Assessment of Ecosystem Service Value and Its Differences in the Yellow River Basin and Yangtze River Basin

The Yellow River Basin and the Yangtze River Basin are the two most important watersheds in China, which consist of several key ecological function areas and are crucial in terms of economic contributions. The evaluation of the ecosystem service value and the quantitative acquisition of the regional ecological quality status are necessary for supporting the ecological protection and high-quality development of the two basins. By considering basic data and adopting different ecological function models, this study was carried out to evaluate the value of ecosystem services in the Yellow River Basin and the Yangtze River Basin from 2015 to 2018 in terms of provisioning services, regulating services, and cultural services. Additionally, analysis was conducted in combination with economic indicators. The results showed that there were great differences in the ecosystem patterns between the Yellow River Basin, where grassland accounted for 45% of land use, and the Yangtze River Basin, where forest accounted for 39% of land use. The values of the ecosystem services of the two basins had similar spatial distributions, with higher values upstream (west) followed by downstream (east) and lower values in the middle (central China). The total annual ecosystem value of the Yangtze River Basin was more than three times that of the Yellow River Basin. In addition, the ecosystem services value of most counties in both basins was higher than their GDP, and there was a positive trend of transforming ecological benefits into economic benefits in the Yangtze River Basin. This research provides a methodology for evaluating ecosystem valuation. The results are helpful for formulating and implementing eco-compensation and payments for ecosystem service policies among different regions in the basins, and the results lay a foundation for the spatial planning and high-quality development paths of key basin areas in China.

Evaluating Natural Ecological Land Change in Function-Oriented Planning Regions Using the National Land Use Survey Data from 2009 to 2018 in China

The natural ecological lands, such as forest land, grassland, wetland, etc., constitute the most important factor for maintaining and preserving the earth’s ecosystem, which must be well concerned in the regional function-oriented planning for the sustainability of human economic development. We analyzed and evaluated the change of natural ecological land in the function-oriented planning regions where we applied the major function-oriented zones introduced as a new concept in China. Using the land-use data from 2009 to 2018 that were produced by the National Land Use Survey, we re-classified natural ecological land types into the forest, grassland, wetland, and bare land, and then addressed the changes of natural ecological land types from 2009 to 2018 in the major function-oriented zones. As a result, the area of natural ecological lands generally tended to decrease from 2009 to 2018, while the decreasing trend of natural ecological land areas was controlled after 2015 with the implementation of governmental policies for environment protection and eco-logical projects. Especially, the decrease of forest land area significantly tended to be zero in 2018 in optimal development zones. The decreased areas of natural ecological lands were mostly converted from artificial land from 2008 to 2019. On the other side, the forest lands mostly changed from cropland and grassland in key development zones, agricultural production zones, and key ecological function zones, due to the fact that grassland conversed in afforestation during this period. The evaluation of natural ecological land changes, which could be implemented by using the annual updates of national land-use data in China, is significant to support the government’s spatial regulation design, to reshape the planned regions, and make policies for environmental restoration and protection management.

Integrating the ecosystem service in sustainable plateau spatial planning: A case study of the Yarlung Zangbo River Basin

The Yarlung Zangbo River Basin (YZRB) is a key ecological protection area on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (QTP). Determination of the ecosystem service values (ESVs) can help recognize the benefits of sustainable management. It is gradually becoming the main path that constructs plateau spatial planning of integrating ecological protection, and achieves global sustainable development goals (SDGs) in China. In this paper, the spatio-temporal dynamic evolutions of the ESVs were estimated on the multiple scales of “basin, subbasin and watershed” from 1980 to 2015. The main factors influencing ESVs were explored in terms of physical geography, human activities, and climate change. It had been proposed that sustainable spatial planning including ecological protection, basin management, and regional development was urgent to set up. Our results show that the increase in wetland and forest and results in an increase of 9.4% in the ESVs. Attention should be paid to the reduction of water and grassland. Water conservation (WC), waste treatment (WT), and soil formation and conservation (SFC) are the most important ecosystem services in the YZRB. At present, the primary problem is to solve the ESVs decreasing caused by glacier melting, grassland degradation, and desertification in the upper reaches region. The middle reaches should raise the level of supply services. Regulation services should be increased in the lower reaches region on the premise of protecting vegetation. The ESVs in adjacent watersheds are interrelated and the phenomenon of “high agglomeration and low agglomeration” is obvious, existing hot-spots and cold-spots of ESVs. Additionally, when the altitude is 4500–5500 m, the temperature is 3–8°C, and the annual precipitation is 350–650 mm, ESVs could reach its maximum. A framework of sustainable plateau spatial planning could provide references to delimit the ecological protection red line, key ecological function zone, and natural resource asset accounting on the QTP.

国家重点生态功能区转移支付改善县域生态环境质量效应评估

国家重点生态功能区转移支付已成为中国乃至全球最大的政府生态保护补偿项目，其资金使用对地方生态环境保护的作用尤为值得关注。为解决既有研究在研究对象和数据采用上的不足，基于包含全国区县、省级和陕西县域等多尺度数据，采用分组平均值及其变化率、统计相关性检验等评估方法，通过不同批次享受政策的县域及不同生态功能区类型县域的对比，对国家重点生态功能区转移支付在自然生态、大气、水环境3个方面的生态环境效益进行了多维度评估。研究结果表明：（1）2011-2017年，转移支付县域在生态质量上趋于稳定，部分生态类型特征的指标有向好趋势，案例和省级分析表明，转移支付与湿地覆盖率存在显著的正相关，该政策对县域生态质量的稳定和提升起到了一定积极作用。（2）2015-2018年，转移支付政策县域PM_2.5、SO₂、NO₂平均浓度均呈下降趋势，大气环境改善较为显著，其中PM_2.5浓度下降尤为明显且在防风固沙型生态功能区县域降幅最大。NO₂浓度的下降幅度较小。（3）转移支付县域的水环境各项指标在2012-2018年波动较大，总体看水环境质量有轻微改善，不同时间享受政策县域的改善效果有所差异，2016年新增的政策县域水环境质量改善更为显著。评估结论表明，国家重点生态功能区转移支付对县域生态环境质量产生了一定积极影响，其中对大气环境质量改善最为明显，对生态和水质的改善存在较大提升空间。;The transfer payment to national key ecological function areas has become the largest ecological protection compensation project from the government level in China and even the world. The effect of its use of funds on local ecological and environmental protection particularly should be given more attention and stress. To solve the deficiencies of existing relevant research in research objects and data, this research was based on the multi-scale data that contains district and county data, provincial data, and the data from case city Shaanxi. By adopting the evaluation method of intuitive level value and its rate of change, statistical correlation test, and comparing counties which differ in batches of policies and types of ecological function zone, this research made a multi-dimensional assessment of the eco-environmental benefits of the transfer payment policy for national key ecological function areas, from the three aspects of natural ecological environment, atmospheric environment, and water environment. The research results showed that: (1) the ecological environment quality of counties that enjoy transfer payment was basically stable from 2011 to 2017, and some indicators of ecological characteristics showed a positive trend. Case analysis and provincial analysis showed that there was a significant positive correlation between transfer payment and wetland coverage. The transfer payment policy for key ecological function areas has played a positive role in stabilizing and improving the ecological quality of counties. (2) From 2015 to 2018, the average concentration of PM_2.5, SO₂, and NO₂ in the counties that enjoy transfer payment policy showed a downward trend, and the improvement of atmospheric environment was significant. Among them, the decrease of PM_2.5 concentration was particularly obvious and the decrease was the largest in counties in the wind-proof and sand-fixing ecological function areas. Relatively, the decrease of NO₂ concentration was small. Therefore, further efforts should be made to reduce the concentration of NO₂. (3) The indicators of water environment in counties given transfer payment fluctuated greatly from 2012 to 2018. Overall, the water environment quality generally improved slightly. The environmental quality of the counties which were added in 2016 showed a more significant improvement. The evaluation conclusions of this research showed that transfer payment to key national ecological function areas have had a positive impact on the county's ecological environment quality, with the most obvious improvement in the quality of atmospheric environment, while there is a room for further improvement in the improvement of ecology and water quality.

近20年防风固沙重点生态功能区植被动态分析

植被是影响防风固沙生态功能的关键指标，也是检验防风固沙区生态保护成效的重要依据。由2010年国务院《全国主体功能区规划》划定的防风固沙类国家重点生态功能区、国家重点生态功能区转移支付县域综合确定研究范围。基于2000-2019年中分辨率成像光谱仪（MODIS）的叶面积指数（LAI）产品，从生态区和像元两个尺度分析近20年防风固沙重点生态功能区植被的时空变化趋势，并进一步探索气候因子对LAI的影响，以期揭示我国北方风沙区生态系统防风固沙功能的现状，为今后生态保护提供支撑。研究结果表明，2000-2019年间，研究区LAI年平均值呈现东高西低的空间格局，随着时间推移有显著增加趋势，平均增幅为0.03 m² m^-2（10a）^-1（P<0.01）。在生态区尺度，LAI在8个生态功能区均表现出不同程度的增长，且2010-2019年间LAI的增长速率高于2000-2009年的，其中，科尔沁草原生态功能区在20年间呈现最为显著的增加趋势，区域平均增幅为0.1154 m² m^-2（10a）^-1（P<0.01）。在像元尺度，近20年LAI显著增长（P<0.05）的区域面积占整个研究区植被面积的41.6%，其中，83.7%的LAI增长区域为草地，11.2%为耕地。增长区域主要集中在研究区东部，呈片状分布，研究区西部的LAI也有一定程度的增长，增长区域呈带状分布。2010-2019年LAI增长的区域面积为7.7%，明显大于2000-2009年LAI增长的区域面积。气候因子对研究区植被的影响为：研究区东部降水的增加对当地植被生长有正向的促进作用，而温度的影响则在整个研究区都较弱。除自然因素外，人为因素（防风固沙政策实施、农业技术进步等）对防风固沙功能区植被状况的改善也至关重要。研究区LAI的显著增加表明我国北方防风固沙屏障的生态功能在近20年有一定程度的提高。;Vegetation is crucial for wind-breaking and sand-fixing, and is an important basis for testing the ecological protection effect of wind-break and sand-fixation regions. The study area is the national key ecological function zones of wind-break and sand-fixation designated by the National Plan for Major Functional Zones of the State Council in 2010, as well as the county areas of transfer payment for national key ecological function zones. Based on the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) Leaf Area Index (LAI) datasets from 2000 to 2019, this paper analyzed the LAI trend of the study area in both ecological zone scale and pixel scale, and the impacts of climate factors on LAI were also analyzed. The above-mentioned works can reveal the state of ecosystem in ecological function zone for wind-break and sand-fixation, providing advices for ecological protection. The results show that, during 2000-2019, annual year average LAI decreases from east to west across the study areas, and an overall increasing exists as time went by, with a rate at 0.03 m² m^-2(10a)^-1 (P<0.01). At the ecological zone scale, the LAI of the eight ecological function zones increases with various amplitudes, and the increasing trend of LAI from 2010 to 2019 is obviously larger than that in 2000-2009. Among the eight ecological function zones, the Horqin Grassland Ecological Function Zone has the largest increasing amplitude (0.1154 m² m^-2(10a)^-1, P<0.01) over the last 20 years. At the pixel scale, the area with significant increase (P<0.05) in LAI accounts for 41.6% of the vegetated regions in the study area, among which 83.7% is covered by grassland and 11.2% is cropland. Pixels with increasing LAI mainly concentrate in the eastern part of the study area, showing a patchy distribution. LAI in the western part has a slight increase, distributing like a strip. Areas with increase in LAI account for 7.7% during 2010-2019, obviously larger than that in 2000-2009. The impacts of climate factors on vegetation in the study area are as follows:the increase of precipitation facilitates vegetation growth in the eastern parts, while in the western parts, these facilitating effects vanish, and the effect of temperature is weak across the whole study area. Apart from the impacts of climate factors, human interventions (implementation of wind-break and sand-fixation policy as well as the progress of agriculture technology) are also crucial on the improvement of vegetation growth. The LAI dynamics indicate that the ecological function for wind-break and sand-fixation in northern China has been improved.

Do industrial pollution activities in China respond to ecological fiscal transfers? Evidence from payments to national key ecological function zones

The policy of payments to National Key Ecological Function Zones (NKEFZs), a type of instrument for Ecological Fiscal Transfers, has been introduced in China. We employed propensity score matching and difference in difference estimation to investigate the effectiveness of this policy on the reduction of industrial pollution. We found evidence that the policy had reduced pollution-intensive activity in the NKEFZs. Meanwhile, implementation of the policy had been selective. First, the downstream NKEFZs with higher opportunity costs had lower efforts to reduce industrial pollution. Because performance-based payment mechanisms neglect opportunity costs, financial stress weakens the efforts to reduce pollution. Secondly, the NKEFZs policy suppresses air-polluting industries but not water-polluting industries. Local governments may reduce only the target pollutant (chemical oxygen demand) while ignoring non-target pollutants. There may be moral hazards under information asymmetry in pollution reduction.

Coupling analysis of the major impact on sustainable development of the typical arid region of Turpan in Northwest China

Analyzing the sustainable development of a given region can provide an important reference and guide for future orientation. The study selects Turpan (including Gaochang District, Shanshan County, and Toksun County) in Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region of Northwest China as the study area and first investigates the essence of regional sustainable development. Based on the relevant data of the population, economy, and environment of Turpan from 2002 to 2018, we constructed an evaluation index system for three dimensions, namely, the population, economy, and environment, and analyzed them systematically. Specifically, we quantitatively calculated the comprehensive evaluation index, coupling degree, and coupling coordination degree of the sustainable development system of the study area. The study finds that Turpan has on some dimensions become increasingly sustainable, especially the economic development level has improved. The results show that the coupling coordination degree has increased from 0.3692 to 0.8894 during the period 2002–2018, which reflects the actual situation of Turpan and indicates that the proposed analysis method can effectively measure and evaluate the level of sustainable development in this region. Moreover, the study also puts forward main functional zoning of Turpan (i.e., Gaochang District as an optimized development zone, Shanshan County as a major agricultural production zone, and Toksun County as a key ecological function zone) and regional planning principles based on the population, economic, and environmental coupling analysis for the three jurisdictions in Turpan.

Increase or decrease? Integrating the CLUMondo and InVEST models to assess the impact of the implementation of the Major Function Oriented Zone planning on carbon storage

In order to achieve the dual goals of territorial development optimization and protection, the Major Function Oriented Zone (MFOZ) has implemented differentiated spatial policies, which will lead to significant changes in future land use and ecosystem services. This study takes Nanning, China as the study area, and integrates the CLUMondo model and the InVEST model to assess the impact of land use change on carbon storage from 2010–2015 and 2015–2030 in three different scenarios. The results show that: (1) under the Natural Growth Scenario (NGS) and Economic Development Scenario (EDS), the overall carbon storage in the study area will decrease, while, under the Ecological Protection Scenario (EPS), the overall carbon storage will increase; (2) under the NGS, carbon storage in the key development zone will decrease, while it will increase in the agricultural production zone and in the key ecological function zone; (3) under the EDS, carbon storage will decrease in all the three major functional zones; (4) under the EPS, carbon storage will increase in all the three major functional zones. In the future, the three major functional zones should implement differentiated development policies to further optimize the land spatial development pattern and realize sustainable development.

Variations in vegetation dynamics and its cause in national key ecological function zones in China.

Continued long-term monitoring of vegetation activity in national key ecological function zones (NKEFZs) has implications for national ecological security and sustainability in China. We used Global Inventory Modeling and Mapping Studies (GIMMS) Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI3g) dataset to map and analyze the spatiotemporal patterns of change in vegetation growth and their linkage with climate change and human activities in NKEFZs during 1982-2013. Statistically significant increases of growing season, spring, and autumn NDVI were observed during all or most periods while 25 NKEFZs are taken as a whole. Non-significant decreases of NDVI were found in 7 NKEFZs during a few periods, and obvious increases were observed during fifteen periods in all other NKEFZs. Vegetation growth in NKEFZs was mainly regulated by a thermal factor, and the dominant climatic drivers varied across different regions and seasons. The influence of temperature was stronger on vegetation activity in spring and autumn for those NKEFZs located in high latitudes and high elevations, while precipitation was the main climatic control factor for NKEFZs in the arid and semi-arid regions. The effects of human activity on the NDVI of NKEFZs were not ignored; a significant decrease of NDVI in the Sanjiang Plain may be related to the rapid change in land use from wetland into farmland.

Spatial Utilization Coordination Features and Development Potential on Ecology-Agriculture-Urban Space of Key Ecological Function Areas: A Case Study of Tacheng Basin, China

Spatial Utilization Coordination Features and Development Potential on Ecology-Agriculture-Urban Space of Key Ecological Function Areas: A Case Study of Tacheng Basin, China