Kelly's Ratio Research Articles

Hydrochemical Characteristics and Suitability Assessment of Groundwater Quality for Irrigation

The hydrochemical properties of groundwater play a crucial role in crop growth and soil health, as well as the maintenance of irrigation equipment. To ensure suitable water quality for irrigation, the present study was conducted to evaluate the hydrochemical properties of irrigation groundwater in a typical agricultural region of Serbia. Groundwater was sampled at three monitoring locations in the Srem region in Republic of Serbia between 2011 and 2020. Examined parameters included electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved salts (TDS), pH values, and the concentrations of cations (sodium (Na+), calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+) and potassium (K+)) and anions (bicarbonate (HCO3−), chloride (Cl−), sulfate (SO42−), and nitrate (NO3−)). Further assessment was done using three classification systems; Nejgebauer’s, the US USSL, and the FAO classification. To obtain a more detailed assessment, additional indices were included, such as Soluble Sodium Percentage (SSP), Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR), Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC), Permeability Index (PI), Kelly’s Ratio (KR), Magnesium Adsorption Ratio (MAR), and Total Hardness (TH). The PCA analysis detected that the concentration of K+, Ca2+, and Na+ in the irrigation water were lower in recent years, while the concentration of Cl− was higher. The cluster analysis grouped the parameters into three clusters; I—electroconductivity, II—dry residue and HCO3−, and III—other water parameters for all three monitoring localities. According to the applied classifications, the majority of underground water samples were suitable for irrigation. However, some samples fell out of the range of the first class, indicating the need for regular water quality monitoring. In light of climate changes that influence water deficiency, the urgent need for wise and sustainable water use implies the application of a comprehensive approach to irrigation water quality assessment, as shown in this study.

EVALUATION OF WATER QUALITY FOR IRRIGATION PURPOSES IN ONIKITINBI VILLAGE, OGUN STATE, SOUTHWESTERN, NIGERIA.

The evaluation of groundwater quality is crucial for sustainable agriculture, as it is a primary water source for irrigation. This study discusses the results of examining the groundwater quality and its appropriateness for irrigation in Onikitinbi village, located in the Ogun waterside area of Ogun State, southwestern Nigeria. This was carried out using the irrigation water quality indices (hydrogeochemical and physio-chemical parameters). The indicators considered include the Magnesium Absorption Ratio (MAR), Kelly Ratio (KR), pH, Total Hardness (TH), Total Dissolved Solid, Stiff and Piper’s Diagram, and Kelly’s ratio. The values obtained were MAR (19.25 to 28.85%, mean of 6.95%), Kelly Ratio (0.11 to.016, mean of 0.13), and pH (6.83 to 7.08, mean of 6.95). Total Hardness (98 mg/L to 266 mg/L, mean of 183 mg/L) and Total Dissolved Solid (40 mg/L to 375 mg/L, mean of 207 mg/L). The Ca-HCO3 - and Ca-SO4 2- water types from Stiff diagram and Piper’s diagram shows that the water sample in the Onikitinbi are from freshwater and Industrial or agricultural sources respectively, while the Gibbs diagram suggests that the main factor controlling the water chemistry is the water-rock interaction. The calculated water indices indicate that the groundwater in the study area meets the required standards for agricultural purposes, specifically irrigation.

A Comparative Analysis of Water Quality Parameters of Vembanad Lake, Kerala and Its Primary Inflows Based on the Seasonal Variations

The ecology of lakes is largely dependent on rivers. However, because research has frequently concentrated on rivers and lakes independently, the interconnectivity between them is poorly defined. During the present study, hydrochemical investigation of surface water from the Vembanad Lake and its primary inflows, Periyar, Muvattupuzha, Manimala, Meenachil, Pamba and Achenkovil were carried out. This study describes the quality and suitability of lake and river water for consumption and irrigation purposes. It also aids in determining the influence of six rivers over the Vembanad lake water quality. Total 80 samples were collected during pre-monsoon and post monsoon seasons. Various physico-chemical parameters such as Temperature, Turbidity, Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Conductivity, pH, Alkalinity, Total Hardness, Calcium, Magnesium, Sodium, Potassium, Chloride, Bicarbonate and Sulphate were analysed. The chemical classification using Piper trilinear diagram reveals that sodium is the predominant cation in both seasons. The Water Quality Index value of the Vembanad Lake is found to be higher in the pre-monsoon season compared to the postmonsoon. Sodium hazard (Sodium Adsorption Ratio- SAR), Residual Sodium Carbonates (RSC), Sodium Percentage (Na%), Magnesium Hazard (MH), Kelly's Ratio (KR) and Permeability Index (PI) are the parameters used to identify the irrigation water quality. Based on the irrigation water quality parameters it can be concluded that water from southern portion of the lake and six inflows are suitable for irrigation purpose. The U.S. Salinity diagram indicates that the northern portion of the lake occupies the high sodium hazard zone. The water quality of the southern portion of the Vembanad Lake is chiefly controlled by its primary freshwater in flows and the northern portion by the saline water from the Arabian Sea. Keywords: Hydrogeochemistry, Water Quality, Sodium Adsorption Ratio,Vembanad Lake Kerala

Evaluation of the Irrigation Water Quality of a Canal Contaminated with Textile Dyeing Industry Effluent

The textile dyeing industries discharge untreated effluent into nearby surface water bodies and introduce large numbers of inorganic, organic toxic compounds containing suspended solids, color, etc., which pose a threat to use for irrigated agricultural lands and human health. The study aimed to assess the irrigation water quality of textile dyeing industry effluent-contaminated canal water. The canal water samples were collected from several locations, analyzed for various physicochemical parameters, and assessed for water quality using multivariate statistical analysis and several water quality indices. The analysis results illustrated that the high levels of electrical conductivity (EC), total suspended solids (TSS), turbidity, Na+, NO3-, PO43-, HCO3-, BOD, and COD in the wastewater samples exceeded the DoE-BD standard limits, indicating a higher level of pollution of the canal water. Concerning heavy metal concentrations, Pb was found to be at a higher level in the water. Moreover, irrigation water quality indices such as permeability index (PI), Kelly’s ratio (KR), sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), and magnesium adsorption ratio (MAR) were found to be higher than the standard limits. The multivariate cluster analysis showed that the two clusters were found among the eighteen sampling sites that included heavily contaminated sites. The discharge of industrial effluent into canal water has a detrimental effect on agricultural products. The study observed that the canal water is not suitable for irrigation purposes, and thus the textile dyeing industrial effluent must be treated by installing an environmentally friendly effluent treatment plant (ETP) before being dumped into surface water bodies, which will help reduce environmental pollution as well as develop sustainable surface water resource management.

A holistic assessment of groundwater quality for drinking and irrigation purposes

Abstract This study discusses about suitability of groundwater for drinking and irrigation use in Rohtak district of Haryana (India). The entropy water quality index (EWQI), sodium absorption ratio (SAR), permeability index (PI), Sodium percentage (Na%), Kelly ratio (KR), magnesium adsorption ratio (MAR), US salinity, and Gibbs diagram were analyzed. The spatial maps suggest that groundwater quality in central part extending towards southwestern part of area can be categorized as poor. The major ions were reported in the following order: Mg2+ > Ca2+ > Na+ > K+, and Cl− > SO42− > NO3− > HCO3− > F− > CO32− respectively. Moreover, results revealed that most of groundwater exceeded desirable limits for drinking water. The EWQI assessment indicates that 23.4% and 38.4% of groundwater samples have extremely poor quality in pre-monsoon and post-monsoon, respectively. Further other indices shows that various indices exceed their standard limit, and mostly samples are unsuitable for irrigation. The Gibbs diagram and other bivariate plots demonstrate that various ions in groundwater can be attributed to silicate and carbonate weathering, which occur through water -rock interactions and ion exchange phenomena. In addition, the US Salinity diagram verifies that most groundwater samples exhibit significant salinity hazards, particularly concerning high sodium levels.

Suitability of Water from Tropical Epikarst Spring for Irrigation in the Gunungsewu Karst Area, Indonesia

Epikarst springs which are dominated by diffuse flows with undeveloped conduits commonly have hydrogeochemical characteristics that are strongly influenced by water-rock interactions. Gedong Spring is an epikarst spring in the Gunungsewu Karst Area, Java Island, Indonesia, which functions as the main source of irrigation water for the surrounding paddy fields. This research was conducted due to the importance to analyze further investigations to determine whether the hydrogeochemical characteristics of the Gedong Epikarst Springs were suitable for agricultural purposes. Therefore, this study aims to determine the quality of water from the epikarst spring temporally which is used for agricultural irrigation, especially rice fields. The study was carried out for one year with sampling intervals of every two weeks. Analysis of water suitability for irrigation purposes was performed using Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR), Sodium Percentage (Na%), USSL Diagram, Wilcox Diagram, Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC), Magnesium Hazard (MH), Permeability Index (PI), Kelly’s ratio (KR), and Hardness (CaCO3). Based on the results obtained from nine different methods, it can be concluded that the water from the Gedong Spring has good potential for year-round agricultural irrigation.

Reflecting on changes in the drinking and irrigation water quality of rivers Beas, Satluj and confluence waters.

Prevention and control of water pollution for maintaining and restoring the wholesomeness of rivers are unavoidable. The current water quality approach of designated best use has some limitations such as it is non-integrative and inflexible with regard to the consideration of variables and does not provide a separate rating scale for a given designated use. We thus used water quality index approach proposed by the Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME WQI) to evaluate and develop a separate rating system for drinking and irrigation purposes of rivers Beas, Satluj and their confluence water of the Indian Punjab using information collected over 4 years (2016 to 2019). River Beas exhibited better water quality compared to river Satluj for irrigation as well as for drinking. The overall drinking water quality index (DWQI) for Beas was marginal (45.5), whereas it was poor for Satluj (37.7) and confluence waters (40.1). The spatial variation in DWQI was greater for Satluj compared to Beas and confluence waters reflecting the effect of dumping of untreated industrial and domestic waste waters. Variables such as Total coliform (T. coli), dissolved oxygen (DO), turbidity and biological oxygen demand (BOD) contributed to the deterioration of DWQI. The irrigation water quality index (IWQI) was good for Beas (86), marginal for Satluj (60.1) and fair for confluence waters (71.2). Faecal coliform (F. coli), Kelly ratio (KR) and %Na contributed to the deterioration of IWQI. Calcium-magnesium-bicarbonate (Ca-Mg-HCO3) was the dominant water type in Beas and confluence waters, whereas for Satluj, in addition to Ca-Mg-HCO3, sodium-potassium-chloride-sulphate and mixed water types were also prevalent. The river waters witnessed salinity hazard but did not pose sodicity hazard except at a few locations of Satluj. The study indicates the need to take location specific measures for improving river water quality for drinking as well as irrigation purposes. The current status of water quality calls for an urgent need to formulate stringent policy regulations to maintain the surface water quality.

Evaluation of drinking and irrigation water quality, and potential risks indices in the Dera Ismail Khan district, Pakistan

This study sought to asses drinking and irrigation water quality in the Dera Ismail (DI) Khan District, Pakistan with the aid of using drinking water quality index (WQI) and irrigation water quality indices (IWQI). Seventy two water samples were collected from various water sources such as tube wells, dug wells, hand pumps, streams, and springs throughout the DI Khan district. The investigated physicochemical parameters include pH, TDS, EC, turbidity, total hardness, major cations (Na, K, Ca, Mg), anions (Cl, HCO3, SO4), and heavy metals (Fe, Mo, Cr, Ni, Cu, and Zn). IWQI used in the study includes Kelly's ratio (KR), permeability index (PI), sodium percent (Na%), Magnesium Hazard (MH), potential salinity (PS), residual sodium carbonate (RSC), and sodium adsorption ratio (SAR). With the mean value of 63, WQI revealed that most samples are placed in the good category, with a smaller fraction in the excellent and poor classes. On the other hand, a health risk assessment of the data pointed out that the molybdenum (Mo) and chromium (Cr) concentrations in drinking water could pose health risks to children of the concerned population. Rock weathering appears to be the dominant hydro-geochemical pathway controlling water chemistry, Ca–Mg–HCO3 being the dominant facies, followed by Na–HCO3. Kelly's ratio (KR), sodium percent (Na%), sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), and residual sodium carbonate (RSC) had values higher than the recommended threshold. The use of water for irrigation of agricultural fields may raise relevant ecological concerns in the studied district.

An integrated approach for evaluating freshwater ecosystems under the influence of high salinity: a case study of Manchar Lake in Pakistan.

Manchar Lake, Pakistan's biggest lake in the arid zone, faces human-induced salinity issues. This study investigated its effects on the multifaceted ecosystem services, including serving as a source of drinking and irrigation water and aquatic health through assessing fish diversity and characteristics. Analyses of 189 water samples from 21 sites revealed spatiotemporal variations in major ions contributing to lake water salinity. The study assessed water suitability for drinking and agriculture using the water quality index (WQI), sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), magnesium hazard (MH), sodium percent (Na%), and Kelly's ratio (KR). The WQI, ranging from 141 to 408, indicated that the lake water was unfit for drinking. In some seasons, such as the pre-monsoon period, the lake water was deemed unsuitable for irrigation due to high SAR values (18 ± 4 g/L, average ± standard deviation), consistently rising MH values exceeding 66 in all seasons and elevated sodium percentages surpassing 66% in both the pre-monsoon and monsoon seasons. The KR remained acceptable (averaging 0.8 to 2.5) in all seasons. Fish health in highly saline conditions was assessed using data from interviews, focus group discussions, and fish sampling (1684 fish from 10 sites). Results depicted that high salt contamination severely impacted fish length and weight. The study found low richness (Simpson's biodiversity: 0.697 and Shannon Weaver: 1.51) and evenness (Pielou's index: 0.48) among the fish populations. Since 1998, Manchar Lake has seen a decline in fish varieties from 32 to 23, with changes in fish species' feeding habits. To improve lake water quality, the study recommends diverting saline water to the sea before and after the monsoon season while utilizing freshwater from alternative sources to fill any water deficit.

Utilizing geographic information system and indexing to evaluate irrigation suitability of groundwater in Kalihati Upazila, Bangladesh

The aim of this research was to evaluate groundwater quality for irrigation in Kalihati Upazila, Bangladesh, a region that is significantly reliant on groundwater for crop development, especially during dry periods. By combining hydrochemical analysis and Geographic Information System (GIS), the research examined the physicochemical attributes and their spatial distribution. Fifteen groundwater samples from various locations were analyzed to measure parameters such as sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), soluble sodium percentage (SSP), residual sodium carbonate (RSC), magnesium adsorption ratio (MAR), electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), total hardness (TH), Kelly's ratio (KR), permeability index (PI), and potential salinity (PS). The pH of the groundwater ranged between 5.51 and 7.53, indicating slightly acidic to moderately alkaline conditions suited for irrigation. The EC ranged between 115.7 and 458 μS/cm, mostly falling into the "excellent" or "good" categories. Groundwater displayed irrigation suitability with TDS below 182 ppm and low SAR values, but variable RSC and MAR values indicated localized water quality issues. Based on the irrigation water quality index, all samples were within the "permissible" range. However, GIS-generated maps showed disparities in groundwater quality across the study area. Correlation matrices revealed significant links between various factors. Both the Piper and Gibbs diagrams displayed a prevalent Ca-HCO3 groundwater type influenced by geological formations. Overall, the study confirmed groundwater's appropriateness for irrigation while recommending periodic evaluations due to a few uncertainties. In conclusion, the study found that hydrochemical analysis, GIS mapping, and correlation matrices reveal groundwater quality and spatial trends, allowing for sustainable water resource management and agricultural advancement.

Groundwater Quality and Suitability Assessment for Irrigation Using Hydrogeochemical Characteristics and Pollution Indices: A Case Study of North Al-Quwayiyah Governorate, Central Saudi Arabia

The present work focuses on a comprehensive hydrochemical assessment of groundwater within a shallow aquifer located in the central region of Saudi Arabia. This aquifer serves as the principal source of groundwater supply for agricultural irrigation purposes. A total of twelve groundwater samples were systematically collected and subjected to thorough analysis to determine various physicochemical parameters. These parameters encompassed electrical conductivity (EC), pH, temperature, total dissolved solids (TDS), as well as concentrations of major ions. Analysis of major ion analysis was employed to elucidate the chemical attributes of groundwater within the research area. This approach facilitated an understanding of the geochemical evolution and the potential suitability of the groundwater for agriculture irrigation. The recorded range of electrical conductivity (EC) for the groundwater in this region falls between 3283 and 11,000 µS/cm, with an average value of 6709.4 µS/cm. The pH levels of the groundwater exhibited a slightly alkaline nature, ranging from 7.8 to 8.6. All sampled wells exhibited brackish water conditions (TDS > 1000 mg/L) based on TDS concentrations. The findings of this investigation demonstrated that the average ion concentration followed the order: Na+ > Ca+ > Mg2+ > K+ and Cl− > SO42− > HCO3− > NO32−. Applying Piper’s classification system, the groundwater samples were classified into two predominant categories: Ca-Cl and mix-Ca-Mg-Cl. The predominance of Ca2+ and Mg2+ over alkalis indicated mixed groundwater facies influenced by processes of reverse ion exchange and extensive interactions between water and rock formations. The distinct chemical characteristics of the groundwater were attributed to a combination of factors, including the percolation of irrigation-returned water, chemical transformations within the vadose zone, and extensive interactions with subsurface lithology. Despite major ion concentrations surpassing the permissible limits outlined by the World Health Organization (WHO) for drinking water, the assessment of quality indices was conducted to ascertain the suitability of the groundwater for irrigation purposes. These quality indices encompassed the permeability index (PI), magnesium hazard (MH), Kelly’s ratio (KR), sodium-adsorption ratio (SAR), residual sodium carbonate (RSC), sodium percentage (Na%), and magnesium ratio (MR). A meticulous evaluation of groundwater quality for agricultural utilization indicated that all sampled groundwater sources were deemed suitable for irrigation purposes.

Evaluation of Tigris River Quality for Irrigation Purposes within Salah Al-Din province/Iraq

In arid and semi-arid regions around the world, water quality is essential in agricultural systems. The present study was evaluated Tigris River for suitability irrigation in Salah Al-Din province. Water samples were collected and analyzed for various Hydro-chemical parameters like EC, TDS, pH, total hardness (TH), Ca2+, Mg2+, CO32-, HCO3-, Cl-, SO42-, Na+, and K+, with different Irrigation indices such as Sodium percentage (Na%), Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC), Permeability Index (PI), Kelly's Ratio (KR), Potential salinity (PS) and Hardness were also calculated. The Na%, SAR, RSC, PI, KR, PS and total hardness varied from 2.26 to 10.06 (mmol. l-1)1/2, 0.01 to 6.10 0 meq. ll-, 8.83 to 77.10%, 0.19 to 1.19 meq. ll, 1.00 to 15.16 meq. ll and 49.3 to 197.1 mg. L-1, respectively. Hence, the various parameters and indices results were concluded that the Tigris River quality was suitable to be used as a water source for irrigation. A strategic plan and regular monitoring are required to limit or reduce the pollution of the river water in order to improve the water quality in its natural condition.

Deployment of entropy information theory in the Indian Sundarban region using hydrogeochemical parameters and GIS for assessment of irrigation suitability.

The evaluation of irrigation suitability plays a crucial role for the socio-economic development of the society, especially in the region of Sundarban. For sustainable agricultural practices, groundwater quality must be suitable for irrigation; otherwise, it can degrade soil and diminish crop yield. The entropy information theory, several irrigational indices, multivariate statistics, GIS, and geostatistics are used in this work to evaluate the geographical distribution and quality of groundwater in the Indian Sundarban region. In total, 33 groundwater samples were collected in 2018 (April and May), and they were evaluated for major cations, anions, as well as other parameters like electrical conductivity (EC), soluble sodium percentage (SSP), potential salinity (PS), total dissolved solids (TDS), Kelly ratio (KR), sodium absorption ratio (SAR), permeability index (PI), residual sodium carbonate (RSC), magnesium hazard (MH), and residual sodium bicarbonate (RSBC). The overall trend of the principal cations and anions is in the sequence of Na+ ≥ Mg2+ ≥ Ca2+ ≥ K2+ and HCO3- ≥ Cl- ≥ NO3- ≥ SO42- ≥ F-, respectively, whereas the spatial variation of %Na, SAR, RSBC, and MH demonstrate very poor irrigation water quality, and spatial variation of KR, RSC, SSP, PI, and PS signifies that the irrigation water quality is excellent to good. In order to identify the specific association and potential source of the dissolved chemical in the groundwater, statistical techniques like correlation and principal component analysis were also employed. The hydrochemical facies indicates that mixed type makes up the bulk (51.51%) of the water samples. Following the Wilcox plot, more than 75% of the water samples are good to doubtful; however, by the US salinity hazard map, roughly 60.60% of the samples had high salinity (C3-S1 zone). The EWQII reports that no samples fall into the very good (no restriction) category, whereas 30.30%, 30.30%, and 39.40% of the sample wells record good (low restriction), average (moderate restriction), and poor (severe restriction) irrigation water quality, respectively. Based on this study, the bulk of the groundwater samples taken from the study area are unsuitable for cultivation. The findings of this study will also help decision-makers develop adequate future plans for irrigation and groundwater resource management.

Temporal Irrigation Water Quality Monitoring and Analysis in Semiarid Tropics: Implication on Crop Production

Irrigation water quality analysis and monitoring is tricky task in semiarid tropics (SAT characterized) experiencing water scarcity. Conjunctive use of water in SAT have emphasizes on surface and ground water quality analysis for increase in agricultural production. Surface water quality analysis is carried out for reservoir water, canal flow, return flow and streams for a Devarabelakere, Village in Harihara Taluk in Davangere District of Karnataka State, India. It is located 12 Km towards west from Davanagere and 9 Km from Harihara. Devarabelakere pickup is constructed at downstreamof the Bhadra Reservoir at a distance of 136.00 Km. The total catchment area of this sub-project is 2106.90sq. Km. of which 1338.90 sq.Km SAT. Average Water quality index in the pre and post monsoon season for surface water was found between in the range of 51 to 75 and falls in the poor water quality status and suitable for irrigation and industrial purpose. Ground water sampling is also carried out at Deverabelekere command area and water quality index in pre and post monsoon seasons was found between the range 26 to 50 and falls in good water quality status and used for drinking, irrigation and industrial purpose. Although WQI shows many of the water samples were suitable or fit for irrigation, calculated other indices such Kelly’s Ratio (KR), Permeability Index (PI), Magnesium Absorption Ratio (MAR) with higher values covering all factors makes the water unsuitable which influences the irrigation water quality. In the study area the crops grown like Sugar cane in area of 28 ha, Plantation crop in area of 34 ha and Semi dry plant grow in 1152 ha and efficiency was found 37.03 % in post monsoon season for canal water and 44.38 % in pre monsoon due to temporal variations in season implicating the yield which is addressed by this paper.

An Assessment of Irrigation Water Quality with Respect to the Reuse of Treated Wastewater in Al-Ahsa Oasis, Saudi Arabia

Irrigation water quality is important to sustain agricultural productivity. The primary irrigation water sources in Al-Ahsa Oasis, KSA, are groundwater wells, mixed with treated wastewater and agricultural drainage. This study sought to evaluate irrigation water quality in Al-Ahsa Oasis with the aid of using irrigation water quality indices (IWQIs). One hundred and forty-eight different water samples were collected from various irrigation water resources throughout Al-Ahsa Oasis. The investigated physiochemical characteristics include pH, temperature, TDS, EC, turbidity, free chlorine, total hardness, cations (Na, K, Ca, Mg), anions (Cl, CO3, HCO3, SO4), organic matter indices (DO, BOD, COD), and nutrients (NH4, NO3, PO4). The IWQIs used in this study include salinity hazard, sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), Kelly’s ratio (KR), soluble sodium percentage (SSP), Permeability index (PI), residual sodium carbonate (RSC), and magnesium hazard (MH). The results indicated that treated wastewater mixed with groundwater is acceptable for irrigation. Spatial variations in irrigation water quality throughout Al-Ahsa are associated with water resources. For instance, groundwater mixed with agricultural drainage has the highest values of TDS, cations, and anions, whereas the lowest values were reported for treated wastewater, reflecting the good efficiency of wastewater treatment plants. The IWQI results revealed that 4.1% and 62.1% of the investigated irrigation water samples were considered good (class III) and satisfactory (class IV) for irrigation, respectively, whereas 33.8% of the collected water samples fall within the severe irrigation restrictions. Moreover, 79.7% of the investigated water samples were classified to have high to very high salinity hazards (C3, C4) and medium to high sodium hazards (S2, S3). Regular monitoring and assessment of treated water quality and wastewater treatment plant efficiency are important factors in achieving the sustainability of treated wastewater reuse in irrigation and consequently food security.

Groundwater quality analysis using different water quality indices in the hard rock aquifer region in semi-arid environment

AbstractThe present study aimed to assess the groundwater quality in the hard rock aquifer system of the Nand Samand catchment for irrigation use by employing distinct water quality indices (sodium adsorption ratio, per cent sodium, electrical conductivity, residual sodium carbonate, soluble sodium per cent, Kelly's ratio, and permeability index) and also, using graphical illustration techniques (United States Salinity Laboratory (USSL) diagram, Piper, Gibbs, Wilcox, and Chadha diagram, Rajasthan, India. Groundwater samples were collected in two seasons, i.e., pre-monsoon and post-monsoon seasons (for the years 2019 and 2020). Ninety-five samples were collected and analyzed to assess overall groundwater quality for irrigation use. The USSL diagram indicated that the maximum groundwater samples were classified under categories C3S1 and C4S1 during the pre-monsoon season, indicating groundwater suitable for irrigation. The major facies observed in groundwater are mixed Ca–Mg–Cl, CaHCO3, and Ca–Mg–Cl type. Gibbs's diagram depicts that the maximum groundwater samples belonged to the evaporation–crystallization zone, which raises salinity by raising sodium and chloride concerning the increase of total dissolved solids. The results showed that the majority of the samples are suitable for irrigation, and the suitability improves during the post-monsoon season.

Study of the quality index of groundwater (GWQI) and its use for irrigation purposes using the techniques of the geographic information system (GIS) of the plain Nekor-Ghiss (Morocco)

Groundwater is an indispensable source of water for drinking water supply, agriculture and industry worldwide. In arid and semi-arid regions, groundwater has seriously deteriorated in recent decades due to environmental changes, anthropogenic activities and marine intrusion. A total of 79 groundwater samples from the Nekor-Ghiss plain were sampled for major chemical ion analysis. These analyzes showed that the water samples were highly mineralized (>1,500 mg/L), with hardness (83.5% of the samples were very hard) and high concentrations of chemical elements, such as Cl−, Mg2+, Na+ and SO42-. To assess the quality of water in the study area for irrigation and consumption purposes, we used the quality index (GWQI) as well as a multi-criteria analysis based on “geographic information system” by assigning a weight to the different water quality parameters. Also, Piper and Durov diagram was investigated. The results of the study were focused on the water quality parameters of the collected groundwater samples, such as the sodium adsorption rate (SAR), the percentage of soluble sodium (Na%), the Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC) and Permeability Index (PI) Majority of water samples in the study area are suitable to be used for irrigation. Magnesium Risk (MH) and Kelley’s Ratio Kelly ratio. 51.9% unsuitable samples to 59.49% good samples for irrigation purposes. Monitoring the quality and quantity of groundwater is crucial for the effective and sustainable management of this valuable resource. According to the results obtained, it appears that 92% of all the samples are located in the domain of frequent recharge waters of limestone and dolomitic aquifers, namely, Ca-Mg-HCO3. About 8% of the samples measured have a composition of the Ca-Na-Mg-HCO3 type.

Metaheuristic approaches for prediction of water quality indices with relief algorithm-based feature selection

Monitoring and assessing groundwater quality are important for sustainable water resource management. Therefore, the present study aimed to analyze and predict the water quality indices using metaheuristics algorithms. Groundwater samples were acquired from 26 tube wells periodically, and laboratory analysis was performed in the soil and water laboratory, Water Technology Centre (WTC), ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute (ICAR-IARI), New Delhi, India. Water quality parameters such as pH, electrical conductivity (EC), calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+), sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), chloride (Cl−), carbonate (CO32−), bicarbonate (HCO3−) and sulphate (SO42−) were used for the computation of water quality indices. The relief algorithm was used for the selection of the best input combinations. Seven meta heuristics algorithms viz., Reduced Error Pruning Tree (REPTree), Random Forest (RF), Bagging, Additive Regression (AdR), M5Preuning Tree (M5P), Random Subspace (RSS), and Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) were trained and tested for Water Quality Index (WQI), and the best four candidate models, i.e., M5P, ANN, RF, and RSS were validated for the prediction of Kelly ratio (KR), sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), permeability index (PI), and percent sodium (%Na). The performance of models was assessed using statistical indicators, i.e., mean absolute error (MAE), root mean squared error (RMSE), Willmott index (WI), Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency (NSE), coefficient of correlation (R), and visual graphics (i.e., Taylor diagram and radar chart). On a quantitative comparative scale, the M5P model performed better for predicting WQI (WI = 0.997, NSE = 0.988, MAE = 7.173, RMSE = 10.769 and R = 0.999) and % Na (WI = 901, NSE = 0.692, MAE = 3.817, RMSE = 5.005 and R = 0.853). The ANN model had a significant edge over other models for predicting indices namely, KR (WI = 0.844, NSE = 0.625, MAE = 0.121, RMSE = 0.164 and R = 0.825), PI (WI = 0.987, NSE = 0.949, MAE = 2.508, RMSE = 3.269 and, R = 0.981), and SAR (WI = 0.981, NSE = 0.916, MAE = 0.314, RMSE = 0.385 and R = 0.976). The result indicated that the M5P model has the potential to predict the water quality indices even under limited input parameters scenarios in the sub-tropical climatic condition. Also, study findings revealed that the relief algorithm based input feature selection could be used for assessing water quality indices. The outcome of the present study would be of interest to policymakers or irrigation planners to achieve groundwater sustainability in terms of water quality suitability for distinct applications and remedial measures to enhance groundwater quality.

Prediction of Sodium Hazard of Irrigation Purpose using Artificial Neural Network Modelling

The present study was carried out using artificial neural network (ANN) model for predicting the sodium hazardness, i.e., sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), percent sodium (%Na) residual, Kelly’s ratio (KR), and residual sodium carbonate (RSC) in the groundwater of the Pratapgarh district of Southern Rajasthan, India. This study focuses on verifying the suitability of water for irrigational purpose, wherein more groundwater decline coupled with water quality problems compared to the other areas are observed. The southern part of the Rajasthan State is more populated as compared to the rest of the parts. The southern part of the Rajasthan is more populated as compared to the rest of the Rajasthan, which leads to the industrialization, urbanization, and evolutionary changes in the agricultural production in the southern region. Therefore, it is necessary to propose innovative methods for analyzing and predicting the water quality (WQ) for agricultural use. The study aims to develop an optimized artificial neural network (ANN) model to predict the sodium hazardness of groundwater for irrigation purposes. The ANN model was developed using ‘nntool’ in MATLAB software. The ANN model was trained and validated for ten years (2010–2020) of water quality data. An L-M 3-layer back propagation technique was adopted in ANN architecture to develop a reliable and accurate model for predicting the suitability of groundwater for irrigation. Furthermore, statistical performance indicators, such as RMSE, IA, R, and MBE, were used to check the consistency of ANN prediction results. The developed ANN model, i.e., ANN4 (3-12-1), ANN4 (4-15-1), ANN1 (4-5-1), and ANN4 (3-12-1), were found best suited for SAR, %Na, RSC, and KR water quality indicators for the Pratapgarh district. The performance analysis of the developed model (3-12-1) led to a correlation coefficient = 1, IA = 1, RMS = 0.14, and MBE = 0.0050. Hence, the proposed model provides a satisfactory match to the empirically generated datasets in the observed wells. This development of water quality modeling using an ANN model may help to useful for the planning of sustainable management and groundwater resources with crop suitability plans as per water quality.

Photocatalytic degradation of reactive dyes using natural photo-smart pigment-A novel approach for waste water re-usability.

The present study is aimed at an efficient photocatalytic degradation of industrially important reactive dyes using phycocyanin extract as aphotocatalyst. The percentage of dye degradation was evidenced by aUV-visible spectrophotometer and FT-IR analysis. The degraded water was checked for its complete degradation by varying pH from 3 to 12. Furthermore, the degraded water was also analyzed for water quality parameters and was found to meet industrial wastewater standards. The calculated irrigation parameters like magnesium hazard ratio, soluble sodium percentage, and Kelly's ratio of degraded water were within the permissible limits, which enables its reusability in irrigation, aquaculture, as industrial coolants, and domestic applications. The calculated correlation matrix shows that the metal influences various macro-, micro-, and non-essential elements. These results suggest that the non-essential element lead can be effectively reduced by increasing all the other micronutrients and macronutrients under study except sodium metal.