Kabul Basin Research Articles

Groundwater quality assessment in upper Kabul basin and Paghman aquifer

In Afghanistan, groundwater is widely used for drinking water, but its quality poses a health threat. This study investigates the physical, chemical, and bacteriological characteristics of groundwater in the Upper Kabul Sub-basin. Fifteen samples were collected and analyzed from different parts of the study area. The qualitative determination of parameters such as pH, Electrical conductivity (EC), Total dissolved solids (TDS), Salinity, Total hardness, Calcium, Magnesium, Sodium, Chloride, Fluoride, Sulfate, Phosphate, Potassium, Nitrite, Nitrate, Ammonia, Iron, Manganese, Copper, Aluminum, Arsenic, Total coliform, and Fecal coliform bacteria was carried out. The results were compared with WHO and ANSA standards to assess their suitability for drinking purposes. The analyzed samples indicate that physical parameters generally fall within permissible limits according to WHO and ANSA standards. However, certain wells exhibited elevated levels of chemical and bacteriological contaminants. Specifically, Magnesium concentrations exceeded the WHO guideline of 30 mg/L in all of the samples, and Calcium levels surpassed the recommended limit of 75 mg/L in 53% of the samples. Total coliform bacteria were detected in 33.33% of the samples, while fecal coliform bacteria were within the WHO and ANSA permissible limit for drinking water. The Pearson’s correlation coefficient (R) suggested significant correlations between EC, TDS, and total hardness with other physical and chemical parameters. For instance, EC showed a strong positive correlation (R = 1.00) with TDS, EC and Salinity (R = 0.981), EC and Fluoride (R = 0.838) EC and Sulfate (R = 0.853), TDS and Salinity (R = 0. 981), TDS and Fluoride (R = 0.838), TDS and Sulfate (R = 0.853). The findings demonstrate that correlation coefficient analyses of water quality parameters provide a valuable means for monitoring water quality. These results offer critical insights for ensuring a safe water supply in the region.

Flood Inundation and Streamflow Changes in the Kabul River Basin under Climate Change

The Kabul basin yields around 16% of the total annual water availability in Pakistan. Changing climate will alter the precipitation regime in terms of intensity and frequency, which will affect the water yield and cause flood hazards. Against this background, this study aims to quantify the impacts of changing climate on the water yield, its timings, and, more importantly, the associated flood hazards in the transboundary Kabul basin. For this, we used a rainfall-runoff inundation (RRI) model coupled with the snow and glacier melt routines and drove it for historical and future climates simulated by the atmosphere-only general circulation model (AGCM) at 20 km spatial resolution. The model simulations reveal that rainfall runoff contributes around 50% of the annual flows, and the rest is contributed by glaciers and snow melts. Annual precipitation is projected to increase by 14% from 535 mm, whereas temperatures will rise by 4.7 °C. In turn, the Kabul River flows will only increase by 4% to 1158 m3s−1 from 1117 m3s−1, mainly due to an increase in winter flows. In contrast to a minute increase in the mean river flows, the maximum flood inundation area is projected to increase by 37%, whereas its depth will rise between 5 and 20 cm.

The Chaman and Paghman active faults, west of Kabul, Afghanistan: Active tectonics, geomorphology, and evidence for rupture in the destructive 1505 earthquake

The city of Kabul, Afghanistan, lies within the Kabul Block, which is bounded by the Sarobi, Gardez and Paghman fault, the northern extension of the Chaman fault, accommodating oblique convergence between the Indian and Eurasian plates. In this paper, we describe the geologic structure and tectonic geomorphology of the northeast-striking Paghman fault and a ∼10-km-long portion of the Chaman fault using a combination of field observations and remote sensing data, and assess evidence for rupturing in the 1505 historical earthquake. The Paghman fault is predominantly a left-lateral strike-slip fault with a minor dip-slip component along the eastern margin of the Paghman Mountains. The Chaman and Paghman faults displaces Paleogene to Quaternary units with clear displacement of recent deposits. Continuous left-lateral movement of the both faults have caused stream deflection, capturing, abandonment, and finally, incision of alluvial deposits inside the Kabul Basin. We identify several stages in the alluvial fan development and displacement that were once a continuous unit displaced left-laterally as a single fan but are now incised by beheaded and offset stream channels. An approximately 30-km-long active fault trace is identified with geomorphic evidence of recent faulting and vertical offset ∼0.5–3 m, which we interpret is related to the historical 1505 earthquake in the area along the Chaman and Paghman faults. Our observations indicate significant along-strike variations in faults trace geometry. The seismic event comprises several fault segments separated by discontinuities such as stepovers. The two faults have accumulated enough elastic strain to cause a larger earthquake since the 1505 quake.

Groundwater Quality Assessment in Pul-e-Charkhi Region, Kabul, Afghanistan

We present the results of studies conducted on the assessment of groundwater quality observed on several water samples taken from water supply sources in the Pul-e-Charkhi region, which is located near the eastern part of Kabul and has seen steady growth in population after the U.S. completed its withdrawal from Afghanistan on 30 August 2021. The water in the basin serves as the main source of water supply and it consists of water discharge from nearby local industries, automobile repair and wash, Osman House, Gradation Place, International Standards Region, and many other regional sources that create a mix of contaminants in discharge to the basin. We collected several samples from each groundwater source for this investigation and transported them carefully to the research laboratory, maintaining the integrity of the samples. The main objective of this study is to assess groundwater quality for the determination of contaminants in groundwater to see what limitations it may pose for recycling and reuse. Such a study is necessary since the region requires persistent sources of water due to a steady increase in population and an associated shortage of water supply due to arid conditions. Furthermore, there is unavailability of similar data since the region served to support military operations since 2001. The samples were analyzed for temperature, electroconductivity, dissolved oxygen, total dissolved solids, salinity, pH, color, turbidity, hardness, chemicals, and heavy metals. The results obtained suggest that the parameters can be used efficiently to design filtration strategies based on region-specific contamination for the specific catchments located in and around the Kabul Basin. An effort to add additional characterization techniques is described to detect micro/nano plastics and new and emerging contaminants. The efforts reported here are consistent with the 2030 agenda for Sustainable Development Goals.

Hydrogeochemical and isotopic evolution of groundwater in shallow and deep aquifers of the Kabul Plain, Afghanistan.

Groundwater from shallow and deep aquifers are widely used for drinking, agricultural and industrial use in Kabul, the capital of Afghanistan. However, unplanned urbanization and rapid population growth has led to the installation of numerous unlicensed wells to meet the public demand. This has caused to extraction of huge amounts of groundwater from the subsurface and further deterioration of groundwater quality. Therefore, understanding the hydrogeochemical characteristics of groundwater in shallow aquifers and deep aquifers is imperative for sustainable management of the groundwater resource in Kabul Plain. Thus, in this study, we used a multi-parameter approach, involving hydrochemical and environmental isotopes to understand the geochemical evolution of entire groundwater system of the Kabul Plain including river and dam water. The results of this study show that shallow and deep aquifers are dominantly of Mg-(Ca)-HCO3 and Na-Cl water type, respectively. We observed that (1) water-rock interaction is the major contributing factor to the chemical compositions of groundwater in the Kabul Plain; (2) groundwater in deep aquifer is mainly influenced by silicate weathering, and dissolution of evaporitic and carbonate minerals and reverse cation exchange; (3) dissolution of carbonates and silicate weathering plays a pivotal role in the groundwater chemistry of shallow aquifer; (4) the stable isotopes of groundwater display that the shallow aquifer is principally recharged by river water and local precipitation; (5) the tritium analysis exhibited that groundwater of shallow aquifer was primarily recharged recently, whereas groundwater of deep aquifer is the mixture of pre 1953 with post 1953 groundwater. This study revealed that there are hydraulic interactions between the two aquifers and the deep aquifer is recharged through shallow aquifer. The findings of this study would be useful for Afghanistan's water authorities to develop an effective strategy for sustainable water resources management in the Kabul Basin.

Estimation of glacier depth and ice volume of Kabul Basin, Afghanistan

Estimation of glacier depth and ice volume of Kabul Basin, Afghanistan

Assessment of seasonal groundwater quality variation employing GIS and statistical approaches in Kabul basin, Afghanistan

Assessment of seasonal groundwater quality variation employing GIS and statistical approaches in Kabul basin, Afghanistan

The Kabul River Basin - the source of the Naglu and other reservoirs

The article is devoted to the assessment and study of the Kabul river basin fed by 7 existing (Jabal-Saraj, Karga, Mahipar, Naglu, Sarubi, and Darunta) and numerous planned (including Gulbahor, Baghdara, Sarubi II, Kunar I, Kunar II, Shatut) reservoirs. The article discusses the Kabul basin's annual precipitation, land cover, and runoff. In addition, it sheds light on soil erosion and the concentration of river and reservoir sedimentation in the Kabul River Basin. Recommendations are also given for solving the problem of soil erosion and the siltation of reservoirs. There is very little data on the Kabul River and its basin due to the lack of detailed hydrological data. Most of the hydrological and meteorological posts did not function or were destroyed during the crisis in the country for about two decades, which led to little or no information on the river's hydrology during this period. Because of this problem, many organizations working in basin water management and designing new hydraulic structures face difficulties in properly planning and designing new hydraulic structures and reservoirs. As a result, most researchers, planners, and designers use old data with a limited observation period, which is insufficient for adequate design and planning of hydraulic structures and other basin development projects. Due to four decades of unrest in the country, the watersheds of the Kabul Basin have been used without any rules or management, resulting in land degradation and watershed erosion. Three main problems, namely overgrazing in rangelands, rain-fed fields, and deforestation, have caused land degradation in the basin. In addition, the situation has been aggravated by the cutting of bushes for fuel in hilly and semi-hilly areas. The basin is overpopulated, and there are many industries in the major cities of the basin, which contributes to water pollution in the Kabul river. Despite water availability, due to a lack of proper planning, the major cities in the basin cannot use the basin's water for domestic needs. In cities like Kabul and Jalalabad, people mainly use groundwater, resulting in the continuous sinking of the groundwater level. For the proper management and development of the Kabul river basin, much work needs to be done, which may yield promising results for developing the country's economy and improving the environment in the Kabul basin region.

Simulating future flood risks under climate change in the source region of the Indus River

AbstractPakistan experiences extreme flood events almost every year during the monsoon season. Recently, flood events have become more disastrous as their frequency and magnitude have increased due to climate change. This situation is further worsened due to the limited capacity of existing water reservoirs and their ability to absorb and mitigate peak floods. Thus, the simulation of stream flows using projected data from climate models is essential to assess flood events and proper water resource management in the country. This study investigates the future floods (in near future and far future periods) using the integrated flood analysis system (IFAS) model under the RCP2.6, RCP4.5, and RCP8.5 climate change scenarios. Downscaled and bias corrected climatic data of six general circulation models and their ensemble were used in this study. The IFAS model simulated the stream flow efficiently (R2 = 0.86–0.93 and Nash–Sutcliffe efficiency = 0.72–0.92) in the Jhelum River basin (JRB), Kabul River basin (KRB), and upper Indus River basin (UIRB) during the calibration and validation periods. The simulation results of the model showed significant impact of projected climate change on stream flows that will cause the mean monthly stream flow in the JRB to be lower, while that of the KRB and UIRB to be higher than that of the historical period. The highest flow months are expected to shift from May–June (Jhelum basin) and June–July (Kabul basin) to April–May with no changes in the UIRB. Higher frequencies of low to medium floods are projected in the KRB and UIRB, while the JRB expects fewer flood events. Based on the results from the IFAS model, it is concluded that stream flow in the study area will increase with several flood events.

Performance evaluation of CORDEX South Asia models for projections of precipitation over the Kabul basin, Afghanistan

Precipitation is one of the key input data for hydrological modelling and water resources assessment. Climate projections are regionally available at a finer resolution, but it is still necessary to validate such data against the observations before any application. In this study the precipitation data available from the Coordinated Regional Downscaling Experiment (CORDEX) program of the South Asian domain was examined against APHRODITE (Asian Precipitation – Highly-Resolved Observational Data Integration Towards Evaluation) precipitation, which is used as observations in the absence of in situ measurements for the data-scarce Kabul basin in Afghanistan. The evaluation methods include verification statistics as well as visual verification by mapping the data over the basin. The evaluation results showed that some of the RCMs (Regional Climate Models) are following an entirely different precipitation pattern both temporally and spatially; however, their driving GCMs might be the same. Six of the 17 RCMs examined in this study performed well for the Kabul basin. The ensemble results of these selected RCMs suggest a decreasing trend in the future precipitation under both RCPs (Representative Concentration Pathways), with variations ranging from −14% to +6% under RCP 4.5 and −17% to +8% under RCP 8.5 for most areas, especially in the central parts of the basin.

Groundwater quality assessment and modeling utilizing water quality index and GIS in Kabul Basin, Afghanistan.

Groundwater stands as a unique source of water supply in Kabul city, Afghanistan. In this investigation, 35 samples of groundwater were comprehensively analyzed to determine its hydrogeochemical characterizations, quality, water types, and its acceptability as drinking sources. A portable digital multiparameter instrument (LAB MAN Scientific instrument) was used to measure the total dissolved solids (TDS), hydrogen potential (pH), and electrical conductivity (EC). Total hardness, chloride, and bicarbonate were examined via a titrimetric approach. Sodium, calcium, magnesium, and potassium concentrations were measured with aflame photometer. Fluoride was determined by using a digital portable multiparameter. UV-VIS spectrophotometers were employed to count sulfate and nitrate concentrations. The distribution pattern of measured parameters and the Water Quality Index (WQI) in groundwater were spatially modeled utilizing the ArcGIS tool. The findings provide insight into the main anions and cations, which are found in ascending sequence F < NO3 < SO4 < Cl < HCO3 and K < Ca < Na < Mg, respectively. Based on the measurements of ion concentrations, bicarbonate (71.4%), chloride (14.28%), nitrate (2.85%), magnesium (80%), sodium (82.85%), calcium (5.71%), and potassium (17.14%) were all determined to be over the World Health Organization (WHO) limits of drinking water. Using the Piper trilinear diagram, two significant hydrochemical facies (CaNaHCO3 and NaHCO3) were discovered. Based on the mathematical model of WQI outputs, 88.57% of the research region has excellent to good water, whereas 11.43% has poor to very poor water.

Delineation of groundwater recharge potential zones for its sustainable development utilizing GIS approach in Kabul basin, Afghanistan

Delineation of groundwater recharge potential zones for its sustainable development utilizing GIS approach in Kabul basin, Afghanistan

An integrated geospatial multi-influencing factor approach to delineate and identify groundwater potential zones in Kabul Province, Afghanistan

This study evaluated the spatial distribution of groundwater potential zones in Kabul Province, Afghanistan using the geospatial multi-influencing factor approach. The influencing parameters employed for the assessment of groundwater potential zones were land slope, geology, soil type, land use/land cover, lineament density, rainfall, and drainage density. The subclasses within each influencing parameter were subdivided based on their influence on groundwater potential as major, minor, and no effect, and were subsequently assigned a score value. The combined score value of these parameters was used for calculating their relative weights. The delineated groundwater potential zones were classified in four groups, i.e., poor, moderate, good, and very good. The study results revealed that zones with a very good groundwater potential covered an area of 355 km2 (2% of the total area), good 1524 km2 (20%), moderate 2251 km2 (73%), and poor 477 km2 (5%). The study concluded that the geospatial-assisted multi-influencing factor approach was very useful and efficient technique for the assessment of groundwater potential zones and can be effectively employed to enhance the conceptual understanding of groundwater resources of Kabul Basin, Afghanistan.

Dominant geochemical reactions and hazardous metal contamination status in the Kabul’s aquifers, Afghanistan

Water is an essential resource for all people, particularly those who live in arid areas, such as Kabul city, Afghanistan. In last decade, development of academic communities and contribution from international organizations have provided opportunities for researchers to address the environmental issues, including problems related to drinking water in Kabul city. Although most of these researches focused on the capital, due to shortage of financial support for water quality studies as well as security concerns, there are in fact very limited publications in that area of interest. Based on an extensive literature search and comprehensive review, four major processes have been identified as controlling factors for water quality in the studied area, which include mineral weathering, redox-sensitive processes, role of adsorption/desorption, and effects of NO3 influx. Among these factors, the most important one was the redox-sensitive processes that have considerable impacts on the chemical composition of water reserves in the Kabul area. Even though there are significant inputs of domestic sewage that released protons into the aquifers, the presence of carbonates with a great buffering capacity has prevented the dissolution of most pH-sensitive minerals; in most cases, these minerals contain hazardous metals. In terms of metal contamination in the Kabul Basin, three metals have displayed elevated levels above the World Health Organization guidelines: uranium, arsenic, and nickel. Based on the literature review, the origin of these toxic metals has revealed, and the associated weathering reactions are presented.

Identifying sources of groundwater salinity and major hydrogeochemical processes in the Lower Kabul Basin aquifer, Afghanistan.

The Kabul Basin aquifer is the main source of water for domestic, agricultural and industrial use in Kabul city. Identifying the main hydrogeochemical processes and source of salinity is crucial for groundwater management. In this study, the results of 41 groundwater samples from the Lower Kabul Basin (LKB) aquifer were evaluated using major hydrogeochemical processes and hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) methods. The electrical conductivity (EC) concentrations ranged from 672 to 15 290 μS cm-1 with a mean value of 1428 μS cm-1. The high spatial variations of EC in the LKB aquifer are due to different sources of salinity in groundwater. The results show that the Mg-(Ca, Na)-HCO3 water type is the dominant hydrogeochemical facies in the aquifer, followed by Mg-(Na)-Cl-(SO4), Na-(Mg)-SO4-(Cl), Na-Cl and Mg-Cl water types. The major factors controlling groundwater chemistry in the aquifer are the dissolution of carbonate, gypsum anhydrate minerals, weathering of silicates, ion exchange and mixing. Based on Cl/Br ratios, dissolution of minerals, anthropogenic and urban effects, and evaporitic lacustrine deposits are the possible sources of salinity in the aquifer. According to Cl/Br ratios and hierarchical cluster analysis, the evaporitic lacustrine deposits are the main source of salinity in the aquifer. The new groundwater survey also confirms the findings. The Cl/Br ratios and HCA successfully identified the sources of salinity in the LKB aquifer. The results of this study can provide a basis for local decision makers to develop effective and sustainable groundwater resources and environmental management strategies for Kabul city.

Geological, Soil and Sediment Studies in Chelsaton Sedimentary Basin, Kabul, Afghanistan

The geology, sediment and soil studies are important due to its significant impacts on agriculture, mining, constructions materials, industries, environment, ground water percolation, air pollution, surface and ground water pollutions, earthquakes and geo-hazards in Afghanistan. In this research, we studied petrography, Sediment, tectonic structures, soil fraction selection by using hydrometer, sieving analysis, and geological mapping. Results show different kinds of metamorphic rocks of low grade and medium grade metamorphisms, Garnete mica Schist, Garnete Schist, Quarsite, different types of minerals among rocks. Further, type of sediment consisting residual angular (Autochthonous) and rounded (Allochthonous) transported by water, among sediments consisting Garnete, Gneiss, Schist, Quarsite, Biotite and consisting different type of sizes boulders, Cobble, Granule, Sand, Silt. Hydrometer analysis shows different types of soil clayey loam, sandy loam, silty loam. Moreover, Geological mapping shows complex tectonic structures like joints, cracks, faults, folds, anticline and syncline. The obtained results suggest that the petrography, sediments and soil researches can be used efficiently for catchments of the Kabul Basin and other basins in Afghanistan.

A Detailed Assessment of Groundwater Quality in the Kabul Basin, Afghanistan, and Suitability for Future Development

Kabul is one of the most populated cities in Afghanistan and providing resources to support this population in an arid climate presents a serious environmental challenge. The current study evaluated the quality of local Kabul Basin groundwater to determine its suitability water for drinking and irrigation purposes now and into the future. This aim was aided through groundwater parameter assessment as well as determination of Water Quality Index (WQI) developed from 15 observation points near the city. The results of our physicochemical analysis illustrate that groundwater in the majority of areas of the Kabul Basin is not generally suitable for human consumption, and in some cases the concentrations of many contaminants are higher than accepted health standards or water quality benchmarks. The aquifer underlies an arid landscape, and because of this 85% of the samples tested are very hard while just over 13% are classified as hard. Groundwater in the Kabul Basin is typically high in calcium and magnesium and overall classified as a calcium bicarbonate water type. Overall, more than 60% of the analyzed samples had concentrations higher than the World Health Organization (WHO) standard of total dissolved solids (TDS), 10% in total hardness (TH), about 30% in turbidity and more than 90% in magnesium. The results show that based on WQI, without treatment, roughly 5% of groundwater in the studied area is unsuitable for human consumption, while 13.3% is very poor and 40% is poor quality water. Approximately 40% of the assessed groundwater has good quality and could be used as drinking water for future development. Groundwater in some areas shows evidence of pollution and high dissolved solids content, rendering these sources unsuitable for either drinking or irrigation purposes.

The Application of Geographic Information System (GIS) and Remote Sensing in Quantifying Snow Cover and Precipitation in Kabul Basin

Water Resources availability is very important to social and economic well-being of the people and has huge impacts on the socio-economic scenarios of a country. Precipitation and snow cover area assessment is some of the major inputs in hydrologic modelling and also for assessing and managing water resources in a basin. The change in the water availability in a basin has huge socio-economic impacts because of the water usage for food production, industries, and many others. The main aim of this study was to measure the snow cover area and precipitation from 2001 to 2015 in the Kabul basin. Moderate Resolution Image Spectroradiometer (MODIS) and Tropical Rainfall measuring Mission (TRMM) data were used to study snow cover area and precipitation respectively during 2001-2015. 8-day snow cover product for 15 years (January) was used to analyse the snow cover while monthly data of TRMM (3B43) were used to analyse the rainfall from 2001-2015. Different image processing techniques were applied on the data retrieved using GIS and Remote Sensing softwares. Initially, SCA was seen increasing, but during the last 3-4 years, it kept decreasing gradually. Rainfall was initially recorded as low, while later on, it was recorded high and reached the highest during 2010.&#x0D; Keywords: MODIS; Snow Cover; TRMM; Precipitation; Kabul Basin; Remote Sensing&#x0D; &#x0D; Copyright (c) 2020 Geosfera Indonesia Journal and Department of Geography Education, University of Jember&#x0D; This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share A like 4.0 International License

Geological Study of Tangi Mahi-Par Mountain Range along Kabul Jalalabad Road, Afghanistan

Tangi Mahi-par is a fault valley from previews geological period (Pleistocene) where the Kabul basin was a lake and occupied by water, and after the formation of Tangi Mahi-par fault valley, water was drained from this way. Therefore, this research is essential to elucidate the different rocks types and structures, with no or scarce previous research’s in this mountainous area. The main objective of this study is to selected rock type, rocky structures and different sizes of river sediments transported by rivers discharge from the previous geological periods. There are different types of sediments, terrace remnants, rocks and geological structures which are generally consist of Limestone and Gneiss, where the limestone is likely belonging to the Thythes ocean remnants in Afghanistan and contains Ammonites fossils. In some parts volcanic breccias, it shows the old volcanic eruptions, Stalactite and stalagmite Carbonitic sediments related to limestones are also present there. In addition, there are different types of geological structures such as Anticline, Syncline, dyke, Sill, Apophysis, Graben and Horst. Unconformities and horizontal layers related to Khengal and Cottagay series passing from this area are located one by another.

Impact of Climate Change on Flood Frequency and Intensity in the Kabul River Basin

Devastating floods adversely affect human life and infrastructure. Various regions of the Hindukush-Karakoram-Himalayas receive intense monsoon rainfall, which, together with snow and glacier melt, produce intense floods. The Kabul river basin originates from the Hindukush Mountains and is frequently hit by such floods. We analyses flood frequency and intensity in Kabul basin for a contemporary period (1981–2015) and two future periods (i.e., 2031–2050 and 2081–2100) using the RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 scenarios based on four bias-corrected downscaled climate models (INM-CM4, IPSL-CM5A, EC-EARTH, and MIROC5). Future floods are modelled with the SWAT hydrological model. The model results suggest an increasing trend due to an increasing precipitation and higher temperatures (based on all climate models except INM-CM4), which accelerates snow and glacier-melt. All of the scenario results show that the current flow with a 1 in 50 year return period is likely to occur more frequently (i.e., 1 in every 9–10 years and 2–3 years, respectively) during the near and far future periods. Such increases in intensity and frequency are likely to adversely affect downstream population and infrastructures. This, therefore, urges for appropriate early precautionary mitigation measures. This study can assist water managers and policy makers in their preparation to adequately plan for and manage flood protection. Its findings are also relevant for other basins in the Hindukush-Karakoram-Himalayas region.