Jupiter Radii Research Articles

DISCOVERY OF DIFFUSE HARD X-RAY EMISSION AROUND JUPITER WITH SUZAKU

We report the discovery of diffuse hard (1-5 keV) X-ray emission around Jupiter in a deep 160 ks Suzaku XIS data. The emission is distributed over ~16x8 Jovian radius and spatially associated with the radiation belts and the Io Plasma Torus. It shows a flat power-law spectrum with a photon index of 1.4+/-0.2 with the 1-5 keV X-ray luminosity of (3.3+/-0.5)x10^15 erg/s. We discussed its origin and concluded that it seems to be truly diffuse, although a possibility of multiple background point sources can not be completely rejected with a limited angular resolution. If it is diffuse, the flat continuum indicates that X-rays arise by the non-thermal electrons in the radiation belts and/or the Io Plasma Torus. The synchrotron and bremsstrahlung models can be rejected from the necessary electron energy and X-ray spectral shape, respectively. The inverse-Compton scattering off solar photons by ultra-relativistic (several tens MeV) electrons can explain the energy and the spectrum but the necessary electron density is >~10 times larger than the value estimated from the empirical model of Jovian charge particles.

WASP-17b: AN ULTRA-LOW DENSITY PLANET IN A PROBABLE RETROGRADE ORBIT

We report the discovery of the transiting giant planet WASP-17b, the least-dense planet currently known. It is 1.6 Saturn masses but 1.5-2 Jupiter radii, giving a density of 6-14 per cent that of Jupiter. WASP-17b is in a 3.7-day orbit around a sub-solar metallicity, V = 11.6, F6 star. Preliminary detection of the Rossiter-McLaughlin effect suggests that WASP-17b is in a retrograde orbit (lambda ~ -150 deg), indicative of a violent history involving planet-planet or star-planet scattering. WASP-17b's bloated radius could be due to tidal heating resulting from recent or ongoing tidal circularisation of an eccentric orbit, such as the highly eccentric orbits that typically result from scattering interactions. It will thus be important to determine more precisely the current orbital eccentricity by further high-precision radial velocity measurements or by timing the secondary eclipse, both to reduce the uncertainty on the planet's radius and to test tidal-heating models. Owing to its low surface gravity, WASP-17b's atmosphere has the largest scale height of any known planet, making it a good target for transmission spectroscopy.

Current‐voltage relation of a centrifugally confined plasma

Observations of Jupiter's auroral regions indicate that electrons are accelerated into Jupiter's atmosphere creating emissions. The acceleration of the electrons intimate that parallel electric fields and field‐aligned currents develop along the flux tubes which connect the equatorial plane to the areas with auroral emission. The relationship between the development of parallel electric fields and the parallel currents is often assumed to be the same as that on Earth. However, the relationship is significantly different at Jupiter due to a lack of plasma at high latitudes as large centrifugal forces caused by Jupiter's fast rotation period (about 9.8 h) constrain the magnetospheric plasma to the equatorial plane. We use a 1‐D spatial, 2‐D velocity space Vlasov code which has been modified to include centrifugal forces to examine the current‐voltage relationship that exists at Jupiter. In particular, we investigate this relationship at a distance of 5.9 Jovian radii, the orbital radius of Io, which is coupled with the auroral spot and Io wake auroral emissions.

Electrodynamic Tether at Jupiter—II: Fast Moon Tour After Capture

An electrodynamic bare-tether mission to Jupiter, following the capture of a spacecraft (SC) into an equatorial highly elliptical orbit with perijove at about 1.3 times the Jovian radius, is discussed. Repeated applications of the propellantless Lorentz drag on a spinning tether, at the perijove vicinity, can progressively lower the apojove at constant perijove, for a tour of Galilean moons. Electrical energy is generated and stored as the SC moves from an orbit at 1 : 1 resonance with a moon, down to resonance with the next moon; switching tether current off, stored power is then used as the SC makes a number of flybys of each moon. Radiation dose is calculated throughout the mission, during capture, flybys and moves between moons. The tour mission is limited by both power needs and accumulated dose. The three-stage apojove lowering down to Ganymede, Io , and Europa resonances would total less than 14 weeks, while 4 Ganymede, 20 Europa, and 16 Io flybys would add up to 18 weeks, with the entire mission taking just over seven months and the accumulated radiation dose keeping under 3 Mrad (Si) at 10-mm Al shield thickness.

THE TRANSIT LIGHT CURVE PROJECT. X. A CHRISTMAS TRANSIT OF HD 17156b

Photometry is presented of the Dec. 25, 2007 transit of HD 17156b, which has the longest orbital period and highest orbital eccentricity of all the known transiting exoplanets. New measurements of the stellar radial velocity are also presented. All the data are combined and integrated with stellar-evolutionary modeling to derive refined system parameters. The planet's mass and radius are found to be 3.212_{-0.082}^{+0.069} Jupiter masses and 1.023_{-0.055}^{+0.070} Jupiter radii. The corresponding stellar properties are 1.263_{-0.047}^{+0.035} solar masses and 1.446_{-0.067}^{+0.099} solar radii. The planet is smaller by 1 sigma than a theoretical solar-composition gas giant with the same mass and equilibrium temperature, a possible indication of heavy-element enrichment. The midtransit time is measured to within 1 min, and shows no deviation from a linear ephemeris (and therefore no evidence for orbital perturbations from other planets). We provide ephemerides for future transits and superior conjunctions. There is an 18% chance that the orbital plane is oriented close enough to edge-on for secondary eclipses to occur at superior conjunction. Observations of secondary eclipses would reveal the thermal emission spectrum of a planet that experiences unusually large tidal heating and insolation variations.

Thermal effects of circumplanetary disc formation around proto-gas giant planets

The formation of a circumplanetary disc and accretion of angular momentum on to a protoplanetary system are investigated using three-dimensional hydrodynamical simulations. The local region around a protoplanet in a protoplanetary disc is considered with sufficient spatial resolution: the region from outside the Hill sphere to the Jovian radius is covered by the nested-grid method. To investigate the thermal effects of the circumplanetary disc, various equations of state are adopted. Large thermal energy around the protoplanet slightly changes the structure of the circumplanetary disc. Compared with a model adopting an isothermal equation of state, in a model with an adiabatic equation of state, the protoplanet's gas envelope extends farther, and a slightly thick disc appears near the protoplanet. However, different equations of state do not affect the acquisition process of angular momentum for the protoplanetary system. Thus, the specific angular momentum acquired by the system is fitted as a function only of the protoplanet's mass. A large fraction of the total angular momentum contributes to the formation of the circumplanetary disc. The disc forms only in a compact region in very close proximity to the protoplanet. Adapting the results to the Solar system, the proto-Jupiter and Saturn have compact discs in the region of r < 21r Jup (r < 0.028 r H,Jup ) and r < 66r Sat (r < 0.061r H,sat ), respectively, where r Jup (r H,Jup ) and r Sat (r H.Sat ) are the Jovian and Satumian (Hill) radius, respectively. The surface density has a peak in these regions due to the balance between centrifugal force and gravity of the protoplanet. The size of these discs corresponds well to the outermost orbit of regular satellites around Jupiter and Saturn. Regular satellites may form in such compact discs around proto-gas giant planets.

Transiting planets - light-curve analysis for eccentric orbits

Transiting planet light curves have historically been used predominantly for measuring the depth and hence ratio of the planet–star radii, p. Equations have previously been presented by Seager & Mallén-Ornelas for the analysis of the total and trough transit light-curve time to derive the ratio of semimajor axis to stellar radius, a/R*, in the case of circular orbits. Here, a new analytic model is proposed which operates for the more general case of an eccentric orbit. We aim to investigate three major effects our model predicts: (i) the degeneracy in transit light-curve solutions for eccentricity, e > 0; (ii) the asymmetry of the light curve and the resulting shift in the mid-transit time, TMID; (iii) the effect of eccentricity on the ingress and egress slopes. It is also shown that a system with changing eccentricity and inclination may produce a long-term transit time variation (LTTV). Furthermore, we use our model in a re-analysis of HD 209458b archived data by Richardson et al., where we include the confirmed non-zero eccentricity and derive a 24-μm planetary radius of RP= 1.275RJ± 0.082RJ (where RJ= 1 Jovian radius), which is ∼1 per cent larger than if we assume a circular orbit.

Occurrence and source characteristics of the high-latitude components of Jovian broadband kilometric radiation

Ulysses had a “distant encounter” with Jupiter when it was within 0.8 AU of the planet during February, 2004. The passage of the spacecraft was from north to south, and observations of the Jovian radio waves were carried out for a few months from high to low latitudes (+80° to +10°) of Jupiter. The statistical study performed during this “distant encounter” event provided the occurrence characteristics of the Jovian broadband kilometric radiation (bKOM), including the high-latitude component as follows: (1) the emission intensity of bKOM was found to have a sinusoidal dependence with respect to the central meridian longitude (CML), showing a broad peak at ∼180°, (2) bKOM was preferably observed in the magnetic latitudinal range from ∼+30° to +90°, and the emission intensities at the high latitudes were found to be two times larger than that at the equatorial region, and (3) the emission intensity was controlled possibly by the sub solar longitude (SSL) of Jupiter. The intensity had a sharp peak around SSL ∼210°. A 3D ray tracing approach was applied to the bKOM in order to examine the source distribution. It was suggested that: (1) the R-X mode waves generated through the Cyclotron Maser Instability process would be unable to reproduce the intense high-latitude component of the bKOM, (2) the L-O mode, which was assumed to be generated at frequencies near the local plasma frequency, was considered to be the dominant mode for past and present observations at mid- and high-latitudinal regions, and (3) the high-latitude component of bKOM was found to have a source altitude of 0.9–1.5 Rj (Rj: Jovian radii), and to be distributed along magnetic field lines having L>10.

New description of Io's cold plasma torus

Despite more than 25 years of study of the Io plasma torus, its generation, dynamics, and even its spatial structure are still poorly understood, especially in the case of the inner, cold region of the torus. To remedy this lack, we analyzed ground‐based coronagraphic images of the torus in S+ 6371 Å emission. We derived cold torus properties by modeling and removing these images' inherent line‐of‐sight integration and atmospheric blurring, using new deconvolution techniques, obtaining high‐spatial‐resolution estimates of the three‐dimensional (3‐D) S+ distributions. From these 3‐D distributions, we discovered that the cold torus is washer‐shaped, with a roughly constant vertical thickness ≤0.25 Jovian radius (RJ), and a radial width that varies from 0.6 to 0.9 RJ. The cold torus is separated by a 0.1–0.2 RJ‐wide low‐density region, or “gap,” from the “ribbon” region which lies just outside it. The small, approximately constant washer height implies an ion parallel temperature (T∥) of ∼3 eV, compared with a ribbon T∥ that varies from about 20 to 50 eV as a function of Jovian magnetic longitude (λIII). The washer has a distinct inner edge, not seen before, whose jovicentric distance varies with λIII so as to create the variable cold torus width. Thus this inner edge is concentric with neither Jupiter nor the rest of the torus. We also confirm the existence of a tilt between the midplanes of the ribbon and cold torus, with an orientation that cannot be produced by the magnetic mirror force acting on ion temperature anisotropy. The structure and composition of the gap and cold torus are best explained by a model in which a small amount of warm S+ plasma diffuses inwards while radiatively cooling. While still warm, its distribution over a large scale height keeps its density small, forming the gap. After sufficient cooling, it collapses to the centrifugal equator, where its higher density and continued inward diffusion make it more visible as the cold torus washer. However, its low electron temperature (probably ≤ T∥) must be kept from further decline by a hitherto‐unsuspected energy source that powers the observed visible wavelength radiation from the cold torus and fluctuates on timescales less than the plasma diffusion time. The formation of the abrupt cold torus inner edge might indicate the loss there of either this energy source or the plasma itself.

Looking for Super‐Earths in the HD 189733 System: A Search for Transits inMOSTSpace‐based Photometry

We have made a comprehensive transit search for exoplanets down to ~1.5 - 2 Earth radii in the HD 189733 system, based on 21-days of nearly uninterrupted broadband optical photometry obtained with the MOST (Microvariability & Oscillations of STars) satellite in 2006. We have searched these data for realistic limb-darkened transits from exoplanets other than the known hot Jupiter, HD 189733b, with periods ranging from about 0.4 days to one week. Monte Carlo statistical tests of the data with synthetic transits inserted into the data-set allow us to rule out additional close-in exoplanets with sizes ranging from about 0.15 - 0.31 RJ (Jupiter radii), or 1.7 - 3.5 RE (Earth radii) on orbits whose planes are near that of HD 189733b. These null results constrain theories that invoke lower-mass hot Super-Earth and hot Neptune planets in orbits similar to HD 189733b due to the inward migration of this hot Jupiter. This work also illustrates the feasibility of discovering smaller transiting planets around chromospherically active stars.

Discussing the processes constraining the Jovian synchrotron radio emission's features

Our recent analysis and understanding of the Jovian synchrotron radio emission with a radiation-belt model is presented. In this work, the electron population is determined by solving the Fokker–Planck diffusion equation and considering different physical processes. The results of the modeling are first compared to in situ particle data, brightness distributions, radio spectrum, and beaming curves to verify the simulated particle distributions. The dynamics of high-energy electrons in Jupiter's inner magnetosphere and their related radio emission are then examined. The results demonstrate that the Jovian moons set the extension and intensity of the synchrotron emission's brightness distribution along the magnetic equator. Simulations show that moons and dust both control the transport toward the planet by significantly reducing the abundance of particles constrained to populate, near the equator and inside 1.8 Jovian radii, the innermost region of the magnetosphere. Due to interactions with dust and synchrotron mechanism, radiation-belt electrons are moved along field lines, between Metis (1.79 Jovian radii) and Amalthea (2.54 Jovian radii), toward high latitudes. The quantity of particles transported away from the equator is sufficient to produce measurable secondary radio emissions. Among all the phenomena acting in the inner magnetosphere, the moons (Amalthea and Thebe) are the primary moderator for the radiation's intensity at high latitudes. Moon losses also affect the characteristics of the total radio flux with longitude. The sweeping effect amplifies the 10-h modulation of the beaming curve's amplitude while energy resonances occurring near Amalthea and Thebe belong to phenomena adjusting it to the right level. Interactions with dust do not significantly constrain radio spectrum features. Resonances near Amalthea and Thebe are responsible for the Jovian radio spectrum's particular slope.

Numerical Simulations of Forced Shallow-Water Turbulence: Effects of Moist Convection on the Large-Scale Circulation of Jupiter and Saturn

AbstractTo test the hypothesis that the zonal jets on Jupiter and Saturn result from energy injected by thunderstorms into the cloud layer, forced-dissipative numerical simulations of the shallow-water equations in spherical geometry are presented. The forcing consists of sporadic, isolated circular mass pulses intended to represent thunderstorms; the damping, representing radiation, removes mass evenly from the layer. These results show that the deformation radius provides strong control over the behavior. At deformation radii &amp;lt;2000 km (0.03 Jupiter radii), the simulations produce broad jets near the equator, but regions poleward of 15°–30° latitude instead become dominated by vortices. However, simulations at deformation radii &amp;gt;4000 km (0.06 Jupiter radii) become dominated by barotropically stable zonal jets with only weak vortices. The lack of midlatitude jets at a small deformation radii results from the suppression of the beta effect by column stretching; this effect has been previously documented in the quasigeostrophic system but never before in the full shallow-water system. In agreement with decaying shallow-water turbulence simulations, but in disagreement with Jupiter and Saturn, the equatorial flows in these forced simulations are always westward. In analogy with purely two-dimensional turbulence, the size of the coherent structures (jets and vortices) depends on the relative strengths of forcing and damping; stronger damping removes energy faster as it cascades upscale, leading to smaller vortices and more closely spaced jets in the equilibrated state. Forcing and damping parameters relevant to Jupiter produce flows with speeds up to 50–200 m s−1 and a predominance of anticyclones over cyclones, both in agreement with observations. However, the dominance of vortices over jets at deformation radii thought to be relevant to Jupiter (1000–3000 km) suggests that either the actual deformation radius is larger than previously believed or that three-dimensional effects, not included in the shallow-water equations, alter the dynamics in a fundamental manner.

Efficient identification of exoplanetary transit candidates from SuperWASP light curves

Transiting extrasolar planets constitute only a small fraction of the range of stellar systems found to display periodic, shallow dimmings in wide-field surveys employing small-aperture A camera arrays. Here we present an efficient selection strategy for follow-up observations, derived from analysis of the light curves of a sample of 67 SuperWASP targets that passed the selection tests we used in earlier papers, but which have subsequently been identified either as planet hosts or as astrophysical false positives. We determine the system parameters using Markov-chain Monte Carlo analysis of the SuperWASP light curves. We use a constrained optimization of X 2 combined with a Bayesian prior based on the main-sequence mass and radius expected from the Two Micron All Sky Survey J - H colour. The Bayesian nature of the analysis allows us to quantify both the departure of the host star from the main-sequence mass-radius relation and the probability that the companion radius is less than 1.5 Jupiter radii. When augmented by direct fight-curve analyses that detect binaries with unequal primary and secondary eclipses, and objects with aperture blends that are resolved by SuperWASP, we find that only 13 of the original 67 stars, including the three known planets in the sample, would qualify for follow-up. This suggests that planet discovery 'hit rates' better than one-in-five should be achievable. In addition, the stellar binaries that qualify are likely to have astrophysically interesting stellar or substellar secondaries.

Planetary Radii across Five Orders of Magnitude in Mass and Stellar Insolation: Application to Transits

To aid in the physical interpretation of planetary radii constrained through observations of transiting planets, or eventually direct detections, we compute model radii of pure hydrogen-helium, water, rock, and iron planets, along with various mixtures. Masses ranging from 0.01 Earth masses to 10 Jupiter masses at orbital distances of 0.02 to 10 AU are considered. For hydrogen-helium rich planets, our models are the first to couple planetary evolution to stellar irradiation over a wide range of orbital separations (0.02 to 10 AU) through a non-gray radiative-convective equilibrium atmosphere model. Stellar irradiation retards the contraction of giant planets, but its effect is not a simple function of the irradiation level: a planet at 1 AU contracts as slowly as a planet at 0.1 AU. For hydrogen-helium planets, we consider cores up to 90% of the total planet mass, comparable to those of Uranus and Neptune. If "hot Neptunes" have maintained their original masses and are not remnants of more massive planets, radii of 0.30-0.45 times Jupiter's radius are expected. Water planets are ~40-50% larger than rocky planets, independent of mass. Finally, we provide tables of planetary radii at various ages and compositions, and for ice-rock-iron planets we fit our results to analytic functions, which will allow for quick composition estimates, given masses and radii, or mass estimates, given only planetary radii. These results will assist in the interpretation of observations for both the current transiting planet surveys as well as upcoming space missions, including CoRoT and Kepler.

Practical SPH models for major planets

Modelling planets is done for two main reasons ‐ the first to further understanding of their internal structure and the second to provide models to explore astrophysical situations in which planets play a role. For the latter reason, the requirements on accuracy are less severe, although the planet must be realistic in its major features. A numerical model of a layered giant planet is developed with an iron core, a silicate mantle, an ice region and a hydrogen‐ helium atmosphere. The Tillotson equation of state is used and examples of two model planets are given, one reproducing the mass and radius of Jupiter quite closely and the other with two Jupiter masses. Transferring these results into a smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH) model presents two main difficulties. A uniform distribution of SPH points leads to too few points representing the non-atmospheric component. It is shown that using a distorted lattice enables the core + silicate + ice to be represented by several hundred points so that the evolution of these regions can be followed in detail. Another difficulty concerns the density discontinuities attendant on a layered structure. Density estimates of SPH points are either too large or too small near material interfaces leading to unrealistic pressure gradients and, consequently, to large and unphysical local forces. Algorithms are described for avoiding this difficulty both at material interfaces and near the surface of the planet. In some astrophysical situations involving SPH-modelled planets, the main bulk of the planet is so opaque that internal heat transfer can be neglected. However, surface regions should radiate and a convenient way for including radiation from a planetary surface is described.

Looking for Giant Earths in the HD 209458 System: A Search for Transits inMOSTSpace‐based Photometry

We have made a comprehensive transit search for exoplanets down to about 2 Earth radii in the HD 209458 system, based on nearly uninterrupted broadband optical photometry obtained with the MOST (Microvariability and Oscillations of Stars) satellite, spanning 14 days in 2004 and 44 days in 2005. We have searched these data for limb-darkened transits at periods other than that of the known giant planet, from about 0.5 days to 2 weeks. Monte Carlo statistical tests of the data with synthetic transits inserted allow us to rule out additional close-in exoplanets with sizes ranging from about 0.20-0.36 RJ (Jupiter radii), or 2.2-4.0 RE (Earth radii) on orbits whose planes are near that of HD 209458b. These null results constrain theories that invoke lower mass planets in orbits similar to HD 209458b to explain its anomalously large radius, and those that predict "hot Earths" due to the inward migration of HD 209458b.

Simulations of field‐aligned currents: Application of theory of thin filament motion to Io's plasma wake

Io's plasma wake was treated as a tail of magnetic flux tubes perturbed by Io successively. The evolution of an Io‐perturbed flux tube was studied numerically via magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) approach of a thin filament. Our simulations suggest that the mechanism for producing wake aurora could not be explained by either Alfvén wave or electric circuit alone, rather, the underlying physics possesses the characteristics typical for both Alfvén wave and corotational lag models. An upstream‐coming flux tube must be in contact with Io for approximately 500 s, until a tilt angle of about 4° has been developed, before it is released downstream. A magnetic field depression forms downstream as a result of the continual departure of the flux tubes from Io, which in turn has significant influence on the motion of a flux tube. A perturbed flux tube would undergo a subcorotational motion in Io's plasma wake. This motion is inevitably modulated by Alfvén wave bouncing back and forth between the equatorial plane and the boundary of Io plasma torus. The scale of the subcorotation region is in the order of 1 Jovian radius (RJ). The distribution of the simulated field‐aligned currents downstream is consistent with the observed wake aurora brightness profile; in particular, the periodic structure in the current distribution is in agreement with recent infrared and FUV observations showing the presence of secondary spots in the auroral emissions.

An overview of Jovian electrons during the distant Ulysses Jupiter flyby

Since the 1970's interplanetary electrons in the MeV energy range, of Jovian origin, have been extensively studied from close to the Sun to beyond the Kronian orbit, near the ecliptic. The Ulysses trajectory allowed to study the propagation of these particles, in a wide range of heliographic latitudes. The location of Jupiter with respect to the structure of the heliospheric magnetic field is precisely determined and non-central. This makes Jovian electrons an ideal opportunity for studying the particle propagation parallel and perpendicular to the heliospheric magnetic field. 12 years after its first encounter in February 1992, the Ulysses mission encountered Jupiter for a second time in February 2004 at a distance of 1684 Jovian radii. The first flyby took place at a distance of closest approach of 6 Jupiter radii ( R J ) and changed the inclination of the Ulysses trajectory so that it would pass above the Sun's polar regions. During the 2004 encounter, in contrast to 1992, Ulysses did not enter the Jovian magnetosphere but remained upstream of it. In mid 2002, the MeV electron flux started increasing and displaying large short term variations. These features lasted throughout the encounter, making the electron intensities less obviously correlated with the proximity to Jupiter compared with the first Jovian encounter. In previous studies it has been shown that the diffusion coefficient κ ⊥ , ϑ perpendicular to the heliospheric magnetic field in polar direction increased in 1998 during the transition from solar minimum to solar maximum close to the ecliptic plane. Although the distant Ulysses encounter took place during the declining phase of the solar cycle the absence of an intensity variation with latitude indicate an unexpected further increase of κ ⊥ , ϑ . Thus the diffusion coefficients, and in particular perpendicular diffusion in the polar direction, are highly time-dependent. In this paper, we present the corresponding data and discuss the implication for particle propagation in the three-dimensional heliospheric magnetic field.

Radiation Shielding Analysis for Various Materials in the Extreme Jovian Environment

ABSTRACTEarlier particle experiments in the 1970s on Pioneer-10 and -11 and Voyager-1 and -2 provided Jupiter flyby particle data, which were used by Divine and Garrett to develop the first Jupiter trapped radiation environment model. This model was used to establish a baseline radiation effects design limit for the Galileo onboard electronics. Recently, Garrett et al. have developed an updated Galileo Interim Radiation Environment (GIRE) model based on Galileo electron data. In this paper, the GIRE model was utilized to generate trapped proton and electron spectra as a function of Rj (Rj = radius of Jupiter = ∼71,400 km). Using these spectra and a high-energy particle transport codes (MCNPX and HZETRN), radiation exposures and dose effects for a variety of shielding materials (Al, polyethylene [PE], and Ta plus several other elemental materials for “Graded-Z” portion of the paper) and thicknesses are presented for the Icy Moon, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto for several orbital inclinations. In addition, an in-depth discussion and absorbed dose calculations are presented for “Graded-Z” materials and several computer codes were utilized for comparison purposes. We find overall there is generally quite good agreement between the various computer codes utilized in the study: MCNPX (Monte Carlo) vs. HZETRN (deterministic) for slab shielding and the comparison of “Graded-Z” shielding using the CEPXS, NOVICE, and NASA JPL codes. Finally, we conclude that the merits of using “Graded-Z” materials that include PE, due to cost and weight, should aid future Jupiter mission planners and spacecraft designers.

Giant planet seeks nursery place

A further discovery of a planet in a binary star system — this time close in — could prove a problem for accepted theories of planetary formation. The implication is that there are more planets out there than we thought. When extrasolar planets were first detected, many were found to be ‘hot Jupiters’, giant planets orbiting much closer to their host star than predicted. They are now thought to have migrated inwards from their starting points. A newly discovered hot Jupiter poses more problems for theorists. This planet is a little bigger than Jupiter and is orbiting close to the primary star of a triple-star system. But the secondary pair of stars is so close to the primary as to limit the radius of a circumstellar dust disk — raw material for planets — to just half of the present orbital radius of this hot Jupiter. And the temperature that close to a star would have been too high for giant plant formation. This one will take some explaining.