Journal Of Experimental Psychology Research Articles

In Case You Haven't Heard…

Both conservative and liberal Americans share fake news because they don't want to be ostracized from their social circles, according to research published by the American Psychological Association, a March 9 news release stated. “Conformity and social pressure are key motivators of the spread of fake news,” said lead researcher Matthew Asher Lawson, Ph.D., an assistant professor of decision sciences at INSEAD, a business school in France. “If someone in your online tribe is sharing fake news, then you feel pressure to share it as well, even if you don't know whether it's false or true.” The research was published in the Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. The proliferation of fake news contributes to increasing political polarization and distrust of democratic institutions, according to the Brookings Institution. But fake news doesn't always proliferate because of dark motives or a call for action. The researchers began studying the issue after noticing people in their own social networks sharing fake news seemingly without malicious intent or ideological purpose. Many complex factors contribute to people's decisions to share fake news so reducing its spread is difficult, and the role of social media companies isn't always clear, Lawson said.

Effect of expectations and retention interval on prospective person memory and vigilance

ABSTRACT The present research examined the role of expectations, delay and ongoing task on prospective person memory. Participants (N = 561) studied six mock missing person posters and were told that they had either a low chance or a high chance of encountering the missing persons. Participants were told to press the ‘h’ key if one of the persons was encountered. Participants engaged in a grocery store task immediately after studying the posters or after a five-minute delay. The grocery store task included photographs of 44 individuals, including one of the ‘missing persons’. During the grocery store task, participants either engaged in an attention demanding ongoing activity (i.e. looking for four items from a shopping list) or were able to devote themselves solely to looking for the missing persons. Expectations of encounter increased both correct and incorrect sightings, effects that were more pronounced after the five-minute delay. The presence of the ongoing task had no significant effect on sighting rates. Results are discussed in terms of the multiprocess model [McDaniel, M. A., & Einstein, G. O. (2000). Strategic and automatic processes in prospective memory retrieval: A multiprocess framework. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 14(7), S127–S144 .] and the preparatory attention and memory process model [Smith, R. E. (2003). The cost of remembering to remember in event-based prospective memory: Investigating the capacity demands of delayed intention performance. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 29(3), 347–361.] of prospective memory. We also discuss applications of these findings to missing person investigations.

Clarification to Hemed et al. (2020).

Reports a clarification to "Evaluation of an action's effectiveness by the motor system in a dynamic environment" by Eitan Hemed, Shirel Bakbani-Elkayam, Andrei R. Teodorescu, Lilach Yona and Baruch Eitam (Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 2020[May], Vol 149[5], 935-948). The authors report a confound in the analysis of the data. Correction of the error changes the results in Experiments 1 and 2 (see ANOVAs, t tests, and figures in Hemed & Eitam, 2022) but not the key theoretical claim. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 2019-62255-001.) An important model for explaining humans' feeling of agency-the Comparator model-draws on ideas used to explain effective motor control. The model describes how our brain estimates the degree of control over the environment offered by a specific motor program (in short, an action's effectiveness). However, given its current level of specification, the model is at best vague on how (or even whether) the prediction of effectiveness of an action is dynamically updated. To test the issue empirically, our participants performed multiple experimental blocks of a task (reliably shown to measure reinforcement from effectiveness) in which blocks with and without action-effects (or with spatially unpredictable feedback) were interlaced. This design creates a sinusoidal-like objective increase or decrease in effectiveness (quantified as the n-trials back probability of receiving feedback), which participants were unable to report. As previously found, response speed indexed reinforcement from effectiveness. The results suggest that reinforcement from effectiveness is sensitive to both the degree and trend of effectiveness; that is, reinforcement is sensitive to whether it is increasing, decreasing, or is unchanged. Given the previous links made between reinforcement from effectiveness and the computation of effectiveness by the motor-system, the results are the first to show an online, dynamic and complex sensitivity to a motor-programs' effectiveness that is directly translated to its production. The importance of testing the so-called sense of agency in a dynamic environment and the implications of the current findings for a dominant model of the sense of agency are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

The location-specific proportion congruence effect: Are left/right locations special?

People reactively adjust attentional control based on the history of conflict experiences at different locations resulting in location-specific proportion compatibility (LSPC) effects. Weidler et al. (2022, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 48[4], 312-330) found that LSPC effects were larger when stimuli were presented on the horizontal axis (i.e., locations to left and right of fixation) compared with the vertical axis (i.e., locations above and below fixation). They proposed and provided initial evidence suggesting left/right locations may represent a special design feature that leads to stronger LSPC effects (i.e., horizontal precedence account). However, their use of horizontally oriented flanker stimuli, which required participants to traverse through the distracting flankers to select the central target selectively in the horizontal axis condition, may have contributed to the horizontal advantage they observed (i.e., gaze path account). The present study tested competing predictions of these two accounts. Experiment 1 used vertically oriented flanker stimuli and compared the findings with Weidler et al. The LSPC effect was larger for vertically oriented stimuli on the vertical axis, and horizontally oriented stimuli on the horizontal axis, supporting the gaze path account. Experiment 2 used flanker stimuli that required participants to traverse through distracting flankers regardless of the axis on which stimuli were presented. The LSPC effect was equivalent between the vertical axis and horizontal axis conditions. These results further supported the gaze path account and suggest that the critical design feature for amplifying LSPC effects is not left/right locations per se, but rather use of stimuli/axis combinations that encourage processing of the distractor dimension.

Message from the incoming editor.

The Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology (CJEP) publishes rigorous experimental psychology research through a fair and constructive review process. CJEP is supported and managed by the Canadian Psychological Association, who partners with the American Psychological Association with respect to journal production. CJEP represents world class research communities that affiliate with the Canadian Society for Brain, Behaviour and Cognitive Sciences (CPA), and the Brain and Cognitive Sciences section of CPA. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Attentional switching between perception and memory: Examining asymmetrical switch costs.

Attention can be defined as a mechanism for the selection and prioritization of elements among many. When attention is directed to a specific piece of information, this information is assumed to be in the focus of attention. On a day-to-day basis, we need to rely on efficient switching between information we are holding in working memory (internal modality) and information presented in the world around us (external modality). A recent set of studies investigated between-modality attentional switches and found that there is an asymmetrical switch cost for switching between the internal and external focus of attention (Verschooren et al., 2020, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 46[9], 912-925; Verschooren, Liefooghe, et al., 2019a, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 45[10], 1399-1414). In particular, participants switched on a trial-by-trial basis between an internal task using stimuli retrieved from memory and an external task using on-screen presented stimuli. A larger cost was found when switching from the external modality towards the internal modality than the other way around. The authors found that this cost asymmetry could be best explained in terms of associative interference (i.e., differences in shielding efficiency against the memory traces from the competing task set). The present study aimed to replicate the asymmetrical switch cost (Experiment 1) and investigate whether an alternative explanation in terms of stimulus strength can account for the asymmetrical switch cost (Experiment 2). Overall, the results confirm the presence of a subtle, asymmetrical switch cost, but we observed little to no contribution of stimulus strength.

Effects of a neutral warning signal under increased temporal uncertainty.

Han and Proctor (2022a, Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 75[4], 754-764) reported that in a visual two-choice task, compared with a no-warning condition, a neutral warning tone caused shorter reaction times (RTs) but at the expense of an increase in error percentages (a speed-accuracy trade-off) at a constant 50-ms foreperiod but shorter RTs without an increase in error percentages at a 200-ms foreperiod. Also, the spatial compatibility of stimulus-response mappings was found to interact with the foreperiod effect on RT. We conducted three experiments to investigate whether these findings can be replicated without the constancy of foreperiod within a trial block. In Experiments 1 and 2, participants performed the same two-choice task as in Han and Proctor's study but with the foreperiod randomly varied among 50, 100, and 200 ms and RT feedback provided after each response. Results showed that as the foreperiod increased, RT decreased while EP increased, demonstrating a consistent speed-accuracy trade-off. Also, the mapping effect was found to be largest at the 100-ms foreperiod. In Experiment 3, RT feedback was not provided, and the warning tone speeded responses without evidence of an increase in error percentage. We conclude that the enhanced information processing at a 200-ms foreperiod depends on constancy of foreperiod within a trial block, whereas the mapping-foreperiod interaction found in Han and Proctor is relatively unaffected by increased temporal uncertainty.

Surviving with story characters: What do we remember?

Readers simulate story characters' emotions, memories, and perceptual experiences. The current study consists of three experiments that investigated whether survival threat would amplify the mnemonic experience of a narrative. First, a replication study of Nairne et al. (Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 33 (2), 263-273, 2007) was conducted with minor methodological alternations and yielded improved recall for participants imagining themselves in a survival scenario over a moving scenario (Experiment 1). In Experiments 2 and 3, participants read stories about a character either stranded in the grasslands or moving to a foreign land. Improved recall for objects included in the story (Experiments 2 and 3) and recognition of story details (Experiment 3) was found when the character was in a survival situation. The largest effects were observed when the reader was asked to imagine themselves as the story character (Experiment 3). Overall, readers remembered survival-relevant details as if they were experiencing the story character's plight. These results extend research showing that survival processing enhances memory for word lists (e.g., Nairne et al., Psychological Science, 19 (2), 176-180, 2008).

"Testing one or multiple: How beliefs about sparsity affect causal experimentation": Correction to Coenen et al. (2019).

Reports an error in "Testing one or multiple: How beliefs about sparsity affect causal experimentation" by Anna Coenen, Azzurra Ruggeri, Neil R. Bramley and Todd M. Gureckis (Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 2019[Nov], Vol 45[11], 1923-1941). In the article, there were errors in Equations 2 through 5. In Equation 2, SE(H ls, o) should have been SE(Hls, o = j). In Equation 3, the Sum should have been from i = 1 to m, and the log should not have been italicized. In Equation 4, the denominator of the fraction on the right hand side should have been\∑ {j=1} m P(o lCj ) P(Cj ). In Equation 5, the Sum should have been from i = 1 to m, and the log should not have been italicized. The online version of this article has been corrected. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 2019-27247-001.) What is the best way of discovering the underlying structure of a causal system composed of multiple variables? One prominent idea is that learners should manipulate each candidate variable in isolation to avoid confounds (sometimes known as the control of variables [CV] strategy). We demonstrate that CV is not always the most efficient method for learning. Using an optimal actor model, which aims to minimize the average number of tests, we show that when a causal system is sparse (i.e., when the outcome of interest has few or even just one actual cause among the candidate variables), it is more efficient to test multiple variables at once. Across a series of behavioral experiments, we then show that people are sensitive to causal sparsity and adapt their strategies accordingly. When interacting with a dense causal system (high proportion of actual causes among candidate variables), they use a CV strategy, changing one variable at a time. When interacting with a sparse causal system, they are more likely to test multiple variables at once. However, we also find that people sometimes use a CV strategy even when a system is sparse. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Attentional strategy choice is not predicted by cognitive ability or academic performance

ABSTRACT People exhibit vast individual variation in the degree to which they choose optimal attentional control strategies during visual search, although it is not well understood what predicts such variation. In the present study, we sought to determine whether markers of real-world achievement (assessed via undergraduate GPA) and cognitive ability (e.g., general fluid intelligence) could predict attentional strategy optimization (assessed via the Adaptive Choice Visual Search task; [Irons, J. L., & Leber, A. B. (2018). Characterizing individual variation in the strategic use of attentional control. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 44(10), 1637–1654]). Results showed that, while general cognitive ability predicted visual search response time and accuracy, neither achievement nor cognitive ability metrics could predict attentional strategy optimization. Thus, the determinants of attentional strategy remain elusive, and we discuss potential steps to shed light on this important research topic.

Reflecting on identity change facilitates confession of past misdeeds.

[Correction Notice: An Erratum for this article was reported online in Journal of Experimental Psychology: General on Feb 24 2022 (see record 2022-33834-001). In the article "Reflecting on Identity Change Facilitates Confession of Past Misdeeds" by Beth Anne Helgason and Jonathan Zev Berman (Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. Advance online publication. January 31, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/xge0001180), the labels of several confidence intervals were omitted due to a copyediting error.] Across four studies (N = 3,351), we demonstrate that reflecting on identity change increases confession and decreases justification of past misdeeds. Moreover, publicly communicating one's identity change to others increases confession above and beyond privately reflecting on identity change. By severing their connection with their past self, individuals can admit to past a misdeed ("I did it") while reducing their fear that doing so will implicate their present moral character ("But that's not who I am anymore"). (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

"Reflecting on identity change facilitates confession of past misdeeds": Correction.

Reports an error in "Reflecting on identity change facilitates confession of past misdeeds" by Beth Anne Helgason and Jonathan Zev Berman (Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, Advanced Online Publication, Jan 31, 2022, np). In the article "Reflecting on Identity Change Facilitates Confession of Past Misdeeds" by Beth Anne Helgason and Jonathan Zev Berman (Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. Advance online publication. January 31, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/xge0001180), the labels of several confidence intervals were omitted due to a copyediting error. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 2022-22513-001). Across four studies (N = 3,351), we demonstrate that reflecting on identity change increases confession and decreases justification of past misdeeds. Moreover, publicly communicating one's identity change to others increases confession above and beyond privately reflecting on identity change. By severing their connection with their past self, individuals can admit to past a misdeed ("I did it") while reducing their fear that doing so will implicate their present moral character ("But that's not who I am anymore"). (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

"Self-regulated learning of important information under sequential and simultaneous encoding conditions": Correction to Middlebrooks and Castel (2018).

Reports an error in "Self-regulated learning of important information under sequential and simultaneous encoding conditions" by Catherine D. Middlebrooks and Alan D. Castel (Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 2018[May], Vol 44[5], 779-792). In the article, there was an error in the computer programming used to present the items to participants in the sequential condition in Experiment 1, such that participants in this condition were inadvertently shown only 18 items in each list instead of the intended 20 items. Participants in the simultaneous condition were shown 20 items during study, as intended, and Experiment 2 was not impacted by this coding error. The Procedure subsection in Experiment 1 has been modified to explain this error and the difference in study experience between the simultaneous and sequential conditions. The overall recall and value-directed remembering analyses in Experiment 1 have also been conducted again, and their respective Results subsections have been updated to reflect this missing data. Table 1 (viz. the row pertaining to the sequential condition in Experiment 1), Table 2 (viz. the column pertaining to Experiment 1), and Figure 2a have also been updated. The online version of this article has been corrected. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 2017-49129-001.) Learners make a number of decisions when attempting to study efficiently: they must choose which information to study, for how long to study it, and whether to restudy it later. The current experiments examine whether documented impairments to self-regulated learning when studying information sequentially, as opposed to simultaneously, extend to the learning of and memory for valuable information. In Experiment 1, participants studied lists of words ranging in value from 1-10 points sequentially or simultaneously at a preset presentation rate; in Experiment 2, study was self-paced and participants could choose to restudy. Although participants prioritized high-value over low-value information, irrespective of presentation, those who studied the items simultaneously demonstrated superior value-based prioritization with respect to recall, study selections, and self-pacing. The results of the present experiments support the theory that devising, maintaining, and executing efficient study agendas is inherently different under sequential formatting than simultaneous. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Essays in honour of William E. Hockley: A Festschrift.

A Festschrift (the German word standing for feast-script) is a collection of essays to celebrate the significant contributions of a scholar to their respective field of studies. Here, it is our honour to introduce this special issue of the Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology as a Festschrift for William (Bill) E. Hockley to celebrate his rich scholarly contributions to the field of cognitive psychology, specifically on human memory. The diversity of articles in this issue highlights the depth and range of Bill's contributions to the study of human memory and cognition. We congratulate Bill on a successful career and thank him for his dedicated service to science and academia. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Does ROC asymmetry reverse when detecting new stimuli? Reinvestigating whether the retrievability of mnemonic information is task-dependent

Recently, it has been suggested that the mnemonic information that underlies recognition decisions changes when participants are asked to indicate whether a test stimulus is new rather than old (Brainerd et al., 2021, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning Memory, and Cognition, advance online publication). However, some observations that have been interpreted as evidence for this assertion need not be due to mnemonic changes, but may instead be the result of conservative response strategies if the possibility of asymmetric receiver operating characteristics (ROCs) is taken into account. Conversely, recent findings in support of asymmetric ROCs rely on the assumption that the mnemonic information accessed by the decision-maker does not depend on whether an old or a new item is considered to be the target Kellen et al. (2021, Psychological Review 128[6], 1022–1050). Here, we aim to clarify whether there is such a difference in accessibility of mnemonic information by applying signal detection theory. To this end, we used two versions of a simultaneous detection and identification task in which we presented participants with two test stimuli at a time. In one version, the old item was the target; in the other, the new item was the target. This allowed us to assess differences in mnemonic information retrieved in the two tasks while taking possible ROC asymmetry into account. Results clearly indicate that there is indeed a difference in the accessibility of mnemonic information as postulated by (Brainerd et al., 2021, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning Memory, and Cognition, advance online publication).

Detecting valence from unidentified images: A link between familiarity and positivity in recognition without identification.

Research using the Recognition Without Identification paradigm (Cleary & Greene, 2000, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 26[4], 1063–1069; Peynircioǧlu, 1990, Journal of Memory and Language, 29, 493–500) has found that participants can discriminate between old and new stimuli even when the stimuli are obscured to a degree that they are unidentifiable. This methodology has been adapted in the past by using heavily obscured threatening and nonthreatening images and asking participants to try to identify each image followed by a familiarity rating of the image. Past results showed that threatening images that were not able to be identified were rated as more familiar than nonthreatening images that were not able to be identified (Cleary et al., 2013, Memory & Cognition, 41, 989–999). The current study used a similar methodology to explore the possibility that a sense of familiarity can serve to guide our attention toward potential threats in the environment. However, contrary to earlier results, we found that positive images were rated as more familiar than negative images. This pattern was found with both identified and unidentified images and was replicated across five experiments. The current findings are consistent with the view that feelings of positivity and familiarity are closely linked (e.g., de Vries et al., 2010, Psychological Science, 21[3], 321–328; Garcia-Marques et al., 2004, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 585–593; Monin, 2003, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85[6], 1035–1048).

Boosting confidence without boosting performance: item strength creates the illusion of source accuracy

ABSTRACT People often express high confidence for misremembered sources. Starns and Ksander ([2016]. Item strength influences source confidence and alters source memory zROC slopes. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 42(3), 351-365; hereafter SK16) found that this happens more often when a person is highly confident in memory for the item itself, and that simply increasing item memory can increase high-confidence source errors. Under the decision heuristic account, this pattern emerges because strong item memories contaminate source judgments by promoting high confidence responses even when source evidence is relatively weak. Consequently, strengthening item memory is predicted to increase confidence for both correct and incorrect source responses; however, SK16 could not assess this key prediction because their item-strength manipulation also impaired source memory. We report two experiments with new item-strengthening manipulations designed to minimise source memory impairments. Results replicated the evidence for the decision heuristic account reported by SK16 and provided additional support by showing a boost in source confidence for both correct and error responses when item memory was strengthened without accompanying source impairments .

"Can we study episodic-like memory in preschoolers from an animal foraging model": Correction.

Reports an error in "Can we study episodic-like memory in preschoolers from an animal foraging model" by Javier Vila, Eneida Strempler-Rubio and Angélica Alvarado (Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Learning and Cognition, 2021[Jul], Vol 47[3], 357-363). In the original article, a repeated measure analysis of variance was calculated with incorrect numerator and denominator degrees of freedom, which resulted in incorrect F, MSE, and R² values being reported in the Results section. When calculated correctly, the significant differences found in the new analysis of variance were the same as before. The results and conclusions are unchanged. The online version of this article has been corrected. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 2021-92066-011). Episodic-like memory (ELM) involves remembering the what, where, and when (WWW) of an event as a whole, and it can be studied behaviorally. In research regarding this type of memory with children, one experiment proposes a new task adapted from animal foraging studies. A task derived from a foraging model was presented its considers the characteristics required for ELM study in children and employs a single trial presented from an egocentric perspective to avoid memory consolidation. One study compared four-year-old children's choices after being trained with one or three trials using a hide-and-seek task. The consequence size and retention interval between training and test were manipulated. Results showed that children chose the optimal outcome after an immediate or delayed test. The children's choices were conditional on the size of the consequences and the time at retrieval according to the Temporal Weighting Rule (Devenport & Devenport, 1994). The results were similar to those of animal studies and were consistent with a foraging memory model. In discussion, the advantages and limitations of the proposed task for the study of ELM in children are described and explained. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

"Guidance of spatial attention by incidental learning and endogenous cuing": Retraction.

Reports the retraction of "Guidance of spatial attention by incidental learning and endogenous cuing" by Yuhong V. Jiang, Khena M. Swallow and Gail M. Rosenbaum (Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 2013[Feb], Vol 39[1], 285-297). The retraction is at the request of the authors. There was an unintentional error in the MATLAB experimental script used for Experiment 5 that caused one experimental condition to be incorrectly recorded in the data files. The authors confirmed that the MATLAB scripts used for Experiments 1 and 2 did not contain any errors and the findings and conclusions remain valid. However, for Experiments 3 and 4, the programming error led to two issues: (a) one variable was incorrectly written to the data files, and (b) the actual number of trials per condition during the training phase was unbalanced. To ensure that the scientific record is adequately corrected, the authors have uploaded additional information, including the MATLAB scripts for all experiments, the reanalysis of the data from Experiments 3, 4, and 5, and the validation of Experiments 1 and 2, to this OSF repository: https://osf.io/k79j4/?view_only=2220d62d0bb643f9b4ca53 e7a6da872f. The first author of the paper, who programmed the MATLAB scripts, takes full responsibility for the error. The authors sincerely regret this error and apologize for its effects on the editors, reviewers, and the broader scientific community. All authors of the original article joined in the request for the retraction. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 2012-09470-001). Our visual system is highly sensitive to regularities in the environment. Locations that were important in one's previous experience are often prioritized during search, even though observers may not be aware of the learning. In this study we characterized the guidance of spatial attention by incidental learning of a target's spatial probability, and examined the interaction between endogenous cuing and probability cuing. Participants searched for a target (T) among distractors (Ls). The target was more often located in one region of the screen than in others. We found that search reaction time (RT) was faster when the target appeared in the high-frequency region rather than the low-frequency regions. This difference increased when there were more items on the display, suggesting that probability cuing guides spatial attention. Additional data indicated that on their own, probability cuing and endogenous cuing (e.g., a central arrow that predicted a target's location) were similarly effective at guiding attention. However, when both cues were presented at once, probability cuing was largely eliminated. Thus, although both incidental learning and endogenous cuing can effectively guide attention, endogenous cuing takes precedence over incidental learning. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

"Orthographic forms affect speech perception in a second language: Consonant and vowel length in L2 English": Correction to Bassetti et al. (2021).

Reports an error in "Orthographic forms affect speech perception in a second language: Consonant and vowel length in L2 English" by Bene Bassetti, Jackie Masterson, Tania Cerni and Paolo Mairano (Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 2021[Dec], Vol 47[12], 1583-1603). In the article, there are several editorial production errors. Jackie Masterson's ORCID iD (https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2869-6612) was missing, and the awardees for Grant RPG 2013 180 were listed incorrectly. This grant was awarded to Bene Bassetti and Jackie Masterson. In the sixth paragraph of The Present Study section, the parenthetical text in the fifth sentence was corrected to read "(for example, the ie in pie has seven readings, Carney, 1994)." Other small typographical errors were fixed, several references were correctly reordered, and one supplemental materials file was removed. The online version of this article has been corrected. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 2022-13139-001.) ItalianL1 speakers of EnglishL2 produce the same English sound as longer if spelled with two than with one letter, following Italian grapheme-phoneme conversion rules. Do Italian listeners perceive short and long sounds in English homophonic word pairs that are spelled with a single letter or a digraph (finish-Finnish; morning-mourning)? In Experiment 1, 50 ItalianL1-EnglishL2 bilinguals and 50 English controls performed a Consonant Perception task and a Vowel Perception Task. They heard English homophonic word pairs containing a target sound spelled with one or two letters and indicated whether the two words contained the same sounds or not. For half of the listeners a picture was used to activate target words (Auditory-Visual Input group). Bilinguals in this group perceived different sounds in homophonic pairs. Experiment 2 tested whether naturalistic exposure reduces orthographic effects on speech perception by comparing learners, sequential bilinguals, and English controls (all n = 30) with Auditory-Visual Input. Orthographic form (spelling) affected consonant perception in both of the second language listener groups. Learners were less affected than bilinguals. Analyses indicated that this was because of the learners' high proficiency. It appears that ItalianL1 speakers of EnglishL2 make a long-short contrast for consonants-unattested in English-and illusorily perceive it in spoken English homophonous words. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).