Ivy Geraniums Research Articles

Ethephon Foliar Sprays Are Influenced by Carrier Water Alkalinity and Ambient Air Temperature at Application

The plant growth regulator (PGR) ethephon [(2-chloroethyl) phosphonic acid; ETH] can be sprayed on floriculture crops to inhibit internode elongation, hinder apical dominance, increase lateral branching, and abort flower buds and flowers. However, the efficacy of ETH can be reduced as the pH of the carrier water used to mix the spray solution or temperature increase. Therefore, our objective was to quantify how the efficacy of ethephon sprays is influenced by carrier water alkalinity (CaCO3; ALK) and the air temperature at application (TEMP). Young plants of verbena (Verbena peruviana) ‘Aztec Blue Velvet’, ivy geranium (Pelargonium ×peltatum) ‘Precision Pink’, and petunia (Petunia ×hybrida) ‘Easy Wave Neon Rose’ were transplanted into 11-cm-diameter containers and grown in a greenhouse with an average daily air temperature (ADT) set point of 21 °C. Before the ETH spray application(s), the ADT in each greenhouse compartment was changed from a set point of 21 °C to 14, 17, 20, 23, or 26 °C for ≈24 hours. Plants were sprayed with 0, 250, 500, or 750 mg·L−1 ETH mixed with carrier water containing ≈50, 150, or 300 mg·L−1 CaCO3 2 and 3 weeks (Expt. 1) or 1 or 2 weeks (Expt. 2) after transplant. Generally, high ALK had a negative effect on spray efficacy. For example, an increase in ALK from 50 to 300 mg·L−1 CaCO3 resulted in one and five fewer ivy geranium and verbena branches, respectively. In addition, as application TEMP increased above 23 °C, chemical efficacy generally decreased in all species. For instance, as ETH increased from 0 to 750 mg·L−1 across ALKs, inflorescence number of ivy geraniums increased from 7 to 18 at a TEMP of 23 °C, but was unaffected at 26 °C. Based on our results, we can conclude that both ALK and TEMP influence ETH efficacy and are additional factors for greenhouse growers to consider when making applications.

Physiological Responses of Ivy Geranium ‘Beach’ and ‘Butterfly’ to Heat Stress

The development of bleaching of the youngest leaves of actively growing ivy geranium (Pelargonium peltatum) has been observed as the season progresses from late spring to summer. Cultivar differences in foliar bleaching in response to elevated air temperature were studied. Ivy geranium ‘Beach’ and ‘Butterfly’ were grown in media containing sphagnum peat and perlite (70:30 v/v) for 6 weeks in modified greenhouse chambers with air temperatures averaging 28/16 or 36/22 °C (day/night). ‘Beach’ had greater plant width, growth index, leaf area, total fresh weight, and total dry weight than ‘Butterfly’ regardless of temperature. Overall, elevated air temperatures severely reduced plant width, plant growth index, leaf area, fresh weight, and dry weight of ivy geraniums. Elevated air temperatures caused foliar bleaching in both cultivars; however, ‘Butterfly’ was more susceptible to bleaching than ‘Beach’. ‘Beach’ had higher chlorophyll (Chl) b and total Chl content than ‘Butterfly’ at ambient air temperature, but they were similar at elevated air temperatures. Regardless of temperature, ‘Beach’ had greater Chl a, carotenoids (Caro), and pheophytins content but lower Chl a:Caro, Chl b:Caro, and total Chl:Caro ratios than ‘Butterfly’. This may contribute to the lower susceptibility to bleaching of ‘Beach’. Elevated air temperatures reduced Chl a, Caro, Chl a:Caro, Chl b:Caro, total Chl:Caro, and pheophytins content of ivy geraniums. In both cultivars, manganese (Mn) content increased with elevated air temperatures, but ‘Beach’ had greater Mn content than ‘Butterfly’. Total iron (Fe) content did not vary with cultivar or temperature. Irrespective of temperature, zinc (Zn) content was greater in ‘Beach’ than ‘Butterfly’, and irrespective of cultivar, Zn content was greater at elevated air temperatures. These results suggest greater chlorophyll, carotenoids, pheophytins, foliar Mn, and Zn contents play a role in reduced susceptibility of ‘Beach’ to foliar bleaching.

Host‐plant‐mediated interaction between populations of a true omnivore and its herbivorous prey

AbstractWestern flower thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande) (Thysanoptera: Thripidae), are competitors with twospotted spider mites, Tetranychus urticae Koch (Acari: Tetranychidae), for plant resources and potential predators on spider mites when the opportunity arises. Which interaction predominates may depend on relative population densities and individual species’ responses to the plants on which they co‐occur. We examined interactions between populations of thrips and spider mites on several cultivars of two bedding plants: impatiens (Impatiens wallerana Hook.f) cultivars ‘Impulse Orange’ and ‘Cajun Carmine’, and ivy geranium [Pelargonium peltatum (L.) L’Her ex Aiton] cultivars ‘Sybil Holmes’ and ‘Amethyst 96’. Four combinations of thrips and mite numbers were studied: thrips alone, mites alone, and two densities of thrips and mites together. We compared population numbers after 4 weeks. Overall, mite numbers increased more rapidly than thrips did, but both species increased more rapidly on impatiens than on ivy geraniums. Between impatiens cultivars, thrips and mites increased more slowly on ‘Cajun Carmine’ (i.e., it was more resistant) than on ‘Impulse Orange’. On ivy geraniums, spider mites increased more slowly on ‘Sybil Holmes’ than on ‘Amethyst 96’ but the reverse was the case for thrips. Regardless of plant species or cultivar, thrips had a strong negative effect on spider mites whenever they co‐occurred, suppressing mite population growth by around 50% compared to when mites were alone. However, the effect of spider mites on western flower thrips depended on the quality of the plant species. On impatiens, thrips co‐occurring with spider mites increased slightly more than thrips alone did, while on ivy geranium mites had a small negative effect on thrips. Contrary to expectations, thrips had a larger negative impact on spider mites on plants that were more susceptible to thrips than they did on plants more resistant to thrips. We suggest that host plants mediate the interaction between an omnivore and its herbivorous prey not only by altering individual diet choice but by changing the relative population dynamics of each species.

Response of Zonal and Ivy Geraniums to Root Medium pH

Three cultivars each of zonal geranium (Pelargonium ×hortorum `Candy Lavender', `Fireball', and `Patriot Red') and ivy geraniums (Pelargonium pelatum `Global Deep Lilac', `Global Salmon Rose', and `Global Soft Pink') were grown in root media with pHs varying from 4.3 to 7.8. In Expt. 1, a mixture of sphagnum peat, fine perlite, and fine pine bark was modified with limestone and hydrated lime at the following rates: 0, 1.2, 3.0, 4.7, and 11.9 kg·m–3 limestone; 11.9 limestone plus 5.9 hydrated lime; 11.9 limestone plus 8.3 hydrated lime; and 11.9 kg·m–3 limestone plus 10.7 kg·m–3 hydrated lime to give the various root medium pH treatments. Plants were grown for 11 weeks in glass greenhouses. In Expt. 2, plants were grown in two commercial soilless mixes with one being modified with the addition of 0 kg·m–3 limestone, 6.0 kg·m–3 limestone plus 0.6 kg·m–3 hydrated lime, and 6.0 kg·m–3 limestone plus 2.4 kg·m–3 hydrated lime. In both experiments, greatest dry weight was recorded in zonal and ivy geraniums plants grown at root medium pHs above 6.4. This study showed a root medium pH of 6.4 to 6.5 should be recommended for the greenhouse production of both zonal and ivy geraniums.

Testing for Non-target Effects of Spinosad on Twospotted Spider Mites and their Predator Phytoseiulus persimilis under Greenhouse Conditions

The compatibility of the selective insecticide spinosad (Conserve SC), at rates recommended for thrips control in greenhouses, with release of the predatory mite Phytoseiulus persimilis Athias-Henriot (Acari: Phytoseiidae) to control spider mites, was investigated in a crop of ivy geranium Pelargonium peltatum, cultivar 'Amethyst 96.' Plants were inoculated with twospotted spider mites, Tetranychus urticae Koch (Acari: Tetranychidae), 2 weeks before treatments were applied. There were three treatment variables, each at two levels: predators (released or not), spray application (water or Conserve SC at 2 ml/3.79 l), and timing of spray (1 day before or after predators were released). Twospotted spider mite populations then were sampled twice each week over a three-week period. The application or timing of spinosad had no effect on the ability of the predator to reduce the population of spider mites. Spider mite populations in the no-predator treatment continued to expand over the course of the experiment, while those in the predator-release treatment declined. We conclude that P. persimilis can be used in conjunction with spinosad on ivy geraniums without causing obvious detrimental effects to this predator or leading to a reduction in biological control.

Variation in Media pH and Electrical Conductivity in Geraniums

Pour-through extraction can provide data indicating geranium container nutrient status for growers to diagnose nutritional problems and prevent plant loss. The objective of this study was to examine changes in growing media pH and electrical conductivity during the production cycle of 10 cultivars from each of the three geranium classes (zonal, ivy, and regal). Thirty cultivars of geraniums were grown in pots using standard commercial greenhouse production guidelines for 12 weeks. Pour-through extractions were performed every 5 d and media pH and electrical conductivity were determined on the collected leachate. While there was a significant reduction in media pH for zonal and ivy geraniums 36 d after transplanting plugs, only one regal cultivar exhibited a decrease in pH during the production cycle. Statistically significant differences for mean media pH and electrical conductivity were also observed among cultivars within each class at several sampling dates. The results of this study indicate that zonal, ivy, and one regal cultivar's media pH decreases rapidly from day 21 to day 36, and then returns to initial levels by day 46. Because of the importance of media pH to nutrient uptake, this study allows for a better understanding of nutritional problems that are linked to pH that frequently occur at the stage of growth. It also suggests that fertigation rates should be adjusted by cultivar and growth stage to address this pH variation.

Response of Zonal and Ivy Geraniums to Root Medium pH

In 2002 the USDA reported potted geraniums accounted for $150 million in wholesale value, more than any other bedding or garden plant surveyed. Despite the importance of the geranium in floriculture production, little published research data is available pertaining to the media pH requirements of zonal and ivy geraniums. Current recommendations suggest zonal geraniums be grown at pH 5.7-6.6 and ivy geraniums at pH 5.0-6.2. The wide range in root medium pH recommendations for both zonal and ivy geraniums and the lack of research data prompted this research. Also, the basis for recommending a lower medium pH for ivy geraniums could not be found in published literature. The research objectives were to investigate the effect of medium pH on plant growth and to determine more precise recommendations for both species. The growth of 3 cultivars each of zonal and ivy geraniums growing in 8 medium pH treatments were evaluated. Limestone and hydrated lime were incorporated at increasing rates into a 1:1:1 peat, perlite and bark mix to achieve a medium pH ranging from pH 4.0-7.5. Plants were harvested at weeks 3, 6, and 11 and plant dry weight and media pH were determined. Leaf luminance, chroma and hue were evaluated at week 10. Plant dry weight was greatest at pH 6.55 or higher for both zonal and ivy geraniums at week 11. Leaves of plants grown at pH 6.55 or higher had significantly lower luminance and chroma and greater hue in all cultivars, corresponding to leaves that were darker, less vivid, and deeper green in color. This study shows a root medium pH greater than pH 6.5 results in greatest plant dry weight accumulation and quality of leaf color for both zonal and ivy geraniums. This study also shows ivy geraniums can be grown at the same media pH as zonal geraniums.

Biological control of twospotted spider mites, Tetranychus urticae Koch (Acari: Tetranychidae), using Phytoseiulus persimilis Athias-Henriot (Acari: Phytoseidae) on ivy geranium: assessment of predator release ratios

Abstract The effectiveness of the predatory mite, Phytoseiulus persimilis Athias-Henriot (Acari: Phytoseidae), as a suppressive agent of the twospotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae Koch (Acari: Tetranychidae), was evaluated on greenhouse ivy geraniums at predator:prey release ratios of 1:60, 1:20, and 1:4. Releases at each predator:prey ratio were made at moderate and high T. urticae densities to determine if initial pest population size influenced the suppressive ability of the predator. At ratios of 1:4 and 1:20, P. persimilis significantly reduced T. urticae populations 1 week after release and kept them at low levels thereafter. Plant damage also was significantly reduced at these densities. After 4 weeks, the P. persimilis that were released at a ratio of 1:4 consistently reduced T. urticae populations from densities as high as 30 T. urticae per leaf to fewer than 0.6 per leaf. We found no interaction between release ratio and T. urticae density, indicating that predator effectiveness remains constant, at least within the range of T. urticae densities used. Our work demonstrates the potential of P. persimilis to provide effective control of T. urticae on a greenhouse-grown floricultural crop at a moderately low predator:prey ratio (1:20) and over a range of initial pest densities. However, we recommend that P. persimilis be released at a ratio of 1:4 for greatest reliability and successful control of T. urticae on ivy geraniums.

Within-plant distribution of twospotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae Koch (Acari: Tetranychidae), on ivy geranium: development of a presence-absence sampling plan.

The twospotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae Koch, is an important pest of ivy geranium and other ornamental plants. As a part of our long-term goal to develop an integrated crop management program for ivy geraniums, the focus of this study was to produce a reliable sampling method for T. urticae on this bedding plant. Within-plant mite distribution data from a greenhouse experiment were used to identify the young-fully-opened leaf as the sampling unit. We found that 53% of the mites on a plant are on the young-fully-opened leaves. On average 22, 37, and 41% of the leaves belonged to the young, young-fully-opened, and old leaf categories, respectively. We then developed a presence-absence sampling method for T. urticae in ivy geranium using generic Taylor's coefficients for this pest. We found the optimal binomial sample sizes for estimating populations of T. urticae at densities of between 0 and 3 mites/leaf to be quite large; therefore, we recommend the use of numerical sampling within this range of T. urticae densities. We also suggest that population estimates of T. urticae on ivy geranium be done based on mite density/unit area of greenhouse space, both for conventional greenhouse pest management, and for determining how many phytoseid predators to release when using biological control.

Effects of cultivar and irrigation management on population growth of the twospotted spider mite Tetranychus urticae on greenhouse ivy geranium.

Greenhouse experiments were conducted to determine whether different ivy geranium cultivars and different irrigation frequencies influenced population growth of the twospotted spider mite (TSM), Tetranychus urticae. Results showed that mite numbers at harvest (about 4 weeks after plants were artificially infested) were very low on 'Sybil Holmes', but significantly higher on 'Amethyst 96'. Irrigation frequency of ivy geraniums had no measurable effect on TSM populations over a range in which water was applied when pot weight dropped 15, 30 or 45% from container capacity. However, the most frequently irrigated plants (15% treatment) produced as much or more growth than plants that received less water. These plants also had the lowest incidence of oedema. There was no significant interaction between water management and host plant resistance, implying the difference in host plant resistance to TSM between the two cultivars should remain constant, at least within the range of the irrigation frequencies studied. Our findings suggest that growers can take advantage of plant resistance to TSM on ivy geranium cultivars of current commercial importance, and that watering practices can be adjusted to optimize plant production without affecting pest populations.

History and Culture of Regal Pelargonium

Regal pelargoniums (Pelargonium ×domesticum) are one of the lesser-known relatives of the ever-popular zonal geranium (P. ×hortorum). Other relatives of both the regals and zonals are the ivy geraniums (P. peltatum) and the scented geraniums (Pelargonium sp.). All the geraniums mentioned here are actually pelargoniums, and all have their origins in South Africa. Regals are not as well known as zonals, perhaps because of their poorer garden performance, yet they have persisted in the commercial trade for centuries. This is a tribute, primarily, to their splendid flowers (Fig. 1). For centuries regals have been a much-admired, if difficult to produce, potted plant with outstanding flowers. Their story begins with the Dutch trade in South Africa and travels around the globe and into the modern day realms of molecular research.

Coal Bottom Ash as a Component of Floriculture Root Media

Our research emphasis has been on utilization of industrial by-products as components of plant root substrates. Coal bottom ash (CBA) collects at the base of furnaces of coal-fired power plants, in contrast to fly ash, which is removed from stack fumes by electrostatic precipitators. A majority of CBA is disposed in landfills. Its low cost and availability in large quantities (in 1994, >14 million tons were produced in the United States, of which only ≈5 million tons were marketed) recommend it for trial as a component of root media, which currently contain far more expensive ingredients. CBA tends to increase pH and EC and decrease water and air capacities of root media. When used as a root medium in a closed loop nutriculture system, it caused an increase in Ca, K, and Na in the nutrient solution. Crops grown in CBA root media include pot and cut chrysanthemums, roses, rhododendrons, poinsettias, Easter lilies, peperomia, zonal and ivy geraniums, impatiens, New Guinea impatiens, and hydrangeas. In general, growth parameters such as plant dry weight and flower number tended to decline at media CBA levels of 75% or more. At CBA levels of 50% or less, these parameters tended to equal or surpass those of plants in control (0% CBA) media.

Evaluating Genetic Relationships of Geranium Using Arbitrary Signatures from Amplification Profiles

Our objective was to distinguish between eight cultivars of two geranium species, Pelargonium ×hortorum L.H. Bailey (cutting and seed geranium) and Pelargonium peltatum (L.) L'Hér. ex Ait. (ivy geranium), and evaluate their genetic relationships using the nucleic acid scanning techniques of DNA amplification fingerprinting (DAF) and/or arbitrary signatures from amplification profiles (ASAP). Cultivars used in the study represented three commercial types: cutting, seed, and ivy geranium. Two seed geranium cultivars from each of the Dynamo and Orbit series were included. Cutting geranium cultivars were `Designer Lilac Chiffon' and `Starburst Red' and the ivy geraniums were `Bernardo Guiber' and `Vinco Guivin'. The ASAP amplification protocol used one of two arbitrary octamer primers, followed by reamplification with one of four different minihairpin primers. ASAP profiles were complex, with 66% of bands being polymorphic and useful in distinguishing between cultivars. Genetic relationships were evaluated by principal coordinate analysis and cluster analysis based on the Jaccard distance estimator. This analysis grouped cultivars by species according to commercial type, i.e., seed geraniums were in one large group, the cutting geraniums were grouped together, and the ivy geraniums were a separate branch.

GROWTH OF PETUNIA, IMPATIENS, AND IVY AND ZONAL GERANIUMS IN ROOT MEDIA CONTAINING COAL BOTTOM ASH

Petunia and impatiens seedlings were planted in cell packs containing 0%, 25%, or 50% (by volume) coal bottom ash (CBA) mixed with peat: vermiculite. High soluble salts caused fresh and dry weights to be greatly reduced in 25% and 50% CBA. This was thought to be due to insufficient drainage in the shallow cell packs. Subsequent crops were grown in 4-inch pots. Double Pink impatiens in 4-inch pots showed no significant difference between control and ash media in the number of buds and flowers, plant heights and diameters, and fresh and dry weights. For `Mixed Shady Lady' impatiens, the number of flowers, and fresh and dry weights were greater in the control and 50% CBA. Plant heights were reduced in 25% and 50% CBA media. There were no differences in plant diameters among the media. Ivy geraniums showed no significant difference in the number of days from planting to first bloom and 50% florets opening; number of florets, buds, and inflorescences; and stem lengths. Shoot numbers were reduced in 25% and 50% CBA. There was also no significant difference in number of days from planting to first bloom and 50% florets opening, or number of buds and inflorescences for zonal geraniums. Number of florets increased for zonal geraniums in 25% CBA.

DNA Amplification Fingerprinting Used to Distinguish Series of Cutting, Seedling, and Ivy Leaf Geranium

The objective was to distinguish between series of cultivars of Pelargonium xhortorum (zonal geranium), Pelargonium hybrids (seed geranium), and Pelargonium peltatum (ivy leaf geranium) using DNA amplification fingerprinting (DAF) demonstrating the utility of DAF for patent protection to prevent infringement of inventor's rights. Leaf tissue of 10 plants of each cultivar of seedling geranium was bulked for DNA extraction, and cutting and ivy geranium cultivars were bulks of five plants of each cultivar. Isolated DNA from different cultivars of a series were bulked together in their respective series. Seedling geranium series included Dynamo, Glamour, Multibloom, Orbit, Pinto, and Ringo 2000. Cutting geranium series included Designer and Showcase. Ivy geraniums were from the Guillou group. Amplification was with one of two octamer primers, followed by reamplifying with one of four different mini hairpin primers. Gels were visually scored for presence or absence of bands. The four primers generated 336 bands. The average number of bands (_1000 bp) per primer was 40. Twenty percent of bands were polymorphic and distinguished between each series of cultivars. Genetic relationships were evaluated by SAHN cluster analysis based on the distance estimator of Dice using the NTSYS-pc program (Numerical taxonomy and multivariate analysis system, version 1.8). Series were grouped according to species. Seedling geraniums were in one large group, the two cutting geraniums were grouped together and the ivy leaf geraniums were a separate branch.

Exposure with Far-red Radiation for Control of Oedema Injury on `Yale' Ivy Geranium

Oedema, a physiological disorder, affects several cultivars of ivy geranium [Pelargonium peltatum (L.) L `Hér. ex Ait) when grown in greenhouses. This study investigated the regulation of oedema on this crop using far-red radiation because these wavelengths inhibited the injury on Solanaceous sp. Plants were exposed to far-red radiation from Sylvania #232 far-red lamps on abaxial and adaxial surfaces of leaves. A far-red photon flux of 15 to 20 μmol·m-2·s-1 (700-S00 nm) was not effective in preventing oedema injury. A far-red abaxial treatment during the light period tended to reduce the amount of injury that developed when photosynthetic photon flux was low (130-170 μmol·m-2·s-1), but this inhibition of the injury was absent with higher photon flux. The results from these studies indicate the use of supplemental far-red radiation treatments in greenhouses would not be justified because adequate and consistent control of the injury on ivy geraniums was not achieved.

Resistance of Ivy Geraniums to the Twospotted Spider Mite1

Abstract Resistance to the twospotted spider mite (Tetranychus urticae Koch) of 18 cultivars of ivy geranium [Pelargonium peltatum (L.) L’Her ex Ait.] was evaluated under greenhouse conditions by mass screening, by measuring fecundity on isolated leaves, and by paired leaf tests for selected cultivars. ‘Sybil Holmes’, ‘Yale’, and ‘Cornell’ were among the most susceptible, whereas ‘Double Lilac White’, ‘Sunset’, and ‘Salmon Queen’ were relatively mite-free. ‘Madeline Crozy’ and ‘Cornell’ were preferred for oviposition over the resistant ‘Double Lilac White’. Mite resistance was not related to density of simple or glandular leaf trichomes, but there was an apparent relationship between mite susceptibility and severity of oedema.