Islamic Government Research Articles

Recasting al-Siyāsa al-Sharʿiyya in 1920s Egypt: Formulating a Theory of an Islamic Modern State

This article primarily explores one of the Muslim scholarly discourses aiming to construct an Islamic governance model, harmonious with the modern state, that is intertwined with premodern Islamic traditions. It scrutinizes the reinterpretation and reconceptualization of the premodern concept of siyāsa sharʿiyya in 1920s Egypt by modernist ʿulamāʾ (religious scholars) to align with the nation state’s legal and constitutional landscapes. The study focuses on the legislative aspects of this modernized theory of siyāsa sharʿiyya and demonstrates how under this theory the state conceptually begins to play a legitimate role in defining Islamic law. Special attention is given to ʿAbd al-Wahhāb Khallāf’s (d. 1375/1956) book, al-Siyāsa al-sharʿiyya, which highlights the transformative epistemological and constitutional repercussions of this discourse. Comparative analysis is conducted with the works of premodern progenitors of the concept, such as Ibn Taymiyya (d. 728/1328) and Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya (d. 751/1350) and later authors who have used the concept, to identify discrepancies between premodern and modern discourses in siyāsa sharʿiyya. The study also cites practical implementations of this modernized theory through a law project proposed in Egypt in 1926 that demonstrates how the new siyāsa sharʿiyya discourse bestowed an inherent legal authority to the state to independently legislate on sharīʿa laws based on an expanded conceptualization of maṣlaḥa (public benefit).

The Ottomans and International Law: The Russian Annexation of the Crimean Khanate in 1783 in the Light of the Documents from the Ottoman Archives

The Russian annexation of the Crimean Khanate was a severe blow to the Ottomans, since the empire was forced to accept the annexation of an independent polity populated by Muslims without a shot being fired, and against the stipulations of past treaties. While the Crimean population sent delegations to the imperial capital and asked for help, the Ottomans also feared the harm the annexation would inflict on their legitimacy; however, they were aware of their military and financial weakness in the face of the Austro-Russian alliance and could not risk a multi-front war. To handle this difficult situation, the Ottoman government resorted to two strategies: first, it sought an intra-bureaucratic consensus by employing the consultation principle of Islamic governance to allow bureaucratic participation in the decision-making process with unanimous decisions to avoid any criticisms that would trigger a popular backlash and, secondly, legitimizing the government policy by benefiting from the principles of Islamic law and portraying the current situation as a temporary one which would be corrected once the empire gained enough military strength. This article will use primary and secondary sources to show how the Ottoman government navigated this diplomatic crisis while aiming to legitimize its decisions by creatively adapting the principles of Islamic international law (siyar). It will emphasize the interaction between political authority, legitimacy, and Islamic law by discussing how the Ottomans interpreted Islamic law with respect to the termination of treaties and to power asymmetry in war decisions when the empire faced a multi-front war with Russia and Austria.

Consumer Boycotts and Jurisprudential Challenges Related to Identifying Its Legal Cause (‘İllah)

Recently, consumer boycott has been used as an economic weapon and a tool of passive resistance. There are several dimensions to consumer boycott, which serves as a means for Muslim communities to assert their will and make their voices heard. This study primarily examines the legal (fiqh) justifications for consumer boycott. The main objective of the study is to identify the reasons (causes) that lead Muslims to engage in consumer boycott. In addition, a secondary objective of our study is to present the problems that may arise in issuing fatwas in relation to the identified causes and abiding by the consequences of these causes. The qualitative analysis method was used to achieve the objective of the study. The analysis was largely carried out using literature and content analysis techniques. Classical jurisprudential principles (uṣūl al-fiqh), principles of issuing fatwas (uṣūl al-iftā), consideration of consequences (i’tibār al-ma’ālāt) and principles of Islamic governance (al-siyāsah al-shar’iyyah) were also highlighted in the research methodology. According to our findings, the concept of boycott is not commonly found in classical jurisprudential sources. The rulings on boycott are more implicitly addressed in issues regulating commercial relations with non-Muslims. As far as contemporary literature is concerned, there are numerous studies on Muslim consumer boycott from different perspectives. However, there is a gap in the literature regarding the identification of the cause of boycott. As a result, four causes of boycott have been identified: 'disrespect for Muslim dignity', 'insulting religious values', 'supporting the enemy in a state of war with Muslims', and 'political interests and general welfare of Muslims'. Some issues related to the practical application of these grounds are also discussed. In addition, the author raises the question of whether threatening the halal and healthy nutrition of Muslim communities is a reason for boycott and suggests it as a topic for further research.

Electoral Systems in Sudan: In Quest for an Appropriate Type

This article reviews the types of electoral systems applied in Sudan since independence – in both democratic and military rules. It goes beyond that to touch on the general features of electoral behavior as well. It employs historical and descriptive approaches to examine some facts pertaining to the reality of elections and hindrances to democracy in the Sudan: <i>First</i>, the democratic process has been obstructed several times by military coups and regimes. <i>Second,</i> children who grew up under al-Bashir's Militant Islamic Regime (MIR) were deprived form exercising democracy or know anything about voting. <i>Third,</i> the lack of continual political participation hindered the process of accumulating political awareness that could enrich the formation of political culture. <i>Fourth,</i> the tribal influence in the socio-political life in many parts of the country, had negatively affected the political behavior of the ordinary people as well as the politicians. This political reality shatters any hope for proper democracy to work in the country. This essay argues that for such pluralism and ethno-cultural multiplicity entails the adoption of consensual democracy. However, it believes that this consociationalism should be supported by the Proportional Representation type of elections –along with federalism and presidential system.

Kebijakan Fiskal Dalam Perspektif Ekonomi Islam Serta Relevansinya Di Negara Indonesia

In classical discourse, Islamic governments that have appeared on the stage of history have exemplified the forms of state income and expenditure. This article describes a comparison of fiscal policy, namely in the income and expenditure of the state treasury according to Islamic and conventional government systems and their implementation which has similarities with fiscal policy in Indonesia. The study method used is literature study, the data obtained is compiled, analyzed and concluded to draw conclusions. The results of the study show that fiscal policy has been implemented since the time of the Prophet Muhammad with the emergence of policy instruments that are in accordance with Islamic principles. As for the fiscal policy that has been exemplified in Islamic government, it has been able to be reformulated in accordance with the legal order and culture of the Indonesian people. It's just that the implementation mechanism is different from what has been implemented by Islamic governments, however, the principles and objectives have much in common. As for the fiscal policies of the State of Indonesia which are considered to be adapted from the Islamic government system, namely kharaj with PBB, 'usyr such as customs with PPn and jizyah such as visas with PPh.

The Model of Social Responsibility of Islamic Banks

Islamic banks, in addition to their "specialized duties", also have "social responsibilities". In economic and managerial literature, this is interpreted as "Corporate Social Responsibility" (CSR), which is a set of benevolent duties arising from the divine and voluntary will that has been determined in the structure of serving the Islamic and human community for Islamic banks. In the Islamic perspective, the responsibility of banks goes beyond the level of shareholder profitability and encompasses the realm of public interest and welfare. Welfare includes both worldly interests and salvation in the hereafter. The origin of these "social responsibilities" is the will of God, from which only wise matters arise. This research aims to present a "model of social responsibility" for Islamic banks. The proposed model consists of structures and variables: the "independent variable" such as governance of ethical and religious values, institutional factors, and economic motivations; the "moderating variable" such as education and awareness of Islamic bank managers, technological and technical factors, compliance with regulations and laws of the Islamic government, the proximity of Islamic banks' location, and convenience for customers; and the "mediating variable" such as market factors (banking products and services), media coverage (advertising), economic-political factors (economic institutions), cultural-social factors (effective cultural-social institutions), international factors (civil society institutions). The "dependent variable" is the social responsibility of Islamic banks. Data analysis was performed using both quantitative and qualitative methods, and the study population is Afghan banks. For fitting the conceptual model of research and investigating the main hypotheses of the research, the structural equation modeling (SEM) method by software (SMART PLS3) has been used, and the research findings indicate that there is a significant relationship between all research variables.

Breaking the Strategic Glass: The Carter Administration and Oman, 1977–1980

Abstract When Jimmy Carter became the U.S. president in January 1977, the United States and Oman did not have any formal security arrangements, apart from occasional landings of U.S. military aircraft on Oman's Masirah Island. Although Oman's leader, Sultan Qaboos bin Said, hoped to establish closer security ties with the United States, the Carter administration chose to continue President Richard Nixon's policy of relying on the “twin pillars” of Iran and Saudi Arabia to reinforce Western security in the Persian/Arabian Gulf region. Oman remained mostly a strategic afterthought until a series of crises unfolded in the greater Middle East: a Communist coup in Afghanistan in April 1978, the fall of the Shah of Iran in January 1979, and a war between Marxist South Yemen and North Yemen shortly thereafter. In November 1979, Iranian terrorists backed by the Islamic regime stormed the U.S. embassy in Tehran and seized dozens of hostages. This was followed a month later by the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. With the fall of the Shah and the collapse of the “twin pillars” policy, the Carter administration began a sustained effort to create a Rapid Deployment Force for the Middle East and to gain access to Oman's strategic military facilities. After several months of arduous negotiations, Carter and his team were able to conclude a Facilities Access Agreement with Oman in June 1980, a transformative process that gave Washington the ability to insert U.S. military personnel into the Gulf and Indian Ocean on a contingency basis. The Carter administration's effort stands as a significant achievement, converting Oman into the most reliable U.S. ally in the Gulf region in the 1980s.

Flattery (Musahibi) is an Unwanted Behavior and Barrier to Institutional Good Governance: An Islamic Perspective

This research delves into the clandestine realm of flattery, known as Musahibi, penetrating deep into its secretive world to illuminate its extensive impact as a hindrance to institutional good governance through the lens of Islamic education. By deploying a multifaceted analysis, the study aims to dissect decision-making processes, unravel distorted paradigms, and challenge ethical values while fostering cultural enthusiasm within institutions. It meticulously examines the corrosive role of flattery in distorting power dynamics, undermining accountability and transparency, and diminishes the cultural enthusiasm within institutions. By integrating contemporary governance structures with Islamic legal principles, this study aims to untangle the complex internal dynamics of flattery, advocating for a transformative leadership rooted in sincerity, integrity, and moral rectitude. It supports a culture of authentic leadership through introspective research, moral stewardship, and the cultivation of shared responsibilities. Moreover, it accentuates the urgent need for robust leadership within institutional governance by providing effective strategies for ethical stewardship, fostering accountability, and promoting excellence. In conclusion, it issues a resolute call to action, urging Islamic governance structures to confront and transcend the shadows of flattery through unwavering determination and principled intervention.

Leader and the Leadership of the Prophet Muhammad: Strategy and Innovation in the Battle of Trench

This article examines Prophet Muhammad's strategic and innovative leadership during the Battle of the Trench, a pivotal event in early Islamic history. Faced with a large confederate army, Muhammad adopted the unprecedented strategy of digging a trench around Medina, demonstrating his adaptability and inclusiveness by accepting a Persian companion's suggestion, Salman al-Farsi. This tactic effectively neutralized the enemy's advantage, highlighting Muhammad’s foresight and strategic acumen which can only be seen if we read the references in detail and feel the tense occurred on that day. The analysis of this article focuses on Muhammad's leadership qualities, including visionary strategy, resilience, ethical conduct, and inspirational influence. These attributes were crucial in uniting and motivating the Muslim community under extreme adversity. The successful defence of Medina not only solidified the Muslim community but also set new precedents in military tactics and ethical warfare, influencing Islamic governance and leadership principles. The Battle of the Trench serves as a significant historical case study of strategic and ethical leadership shown by Muhammad in facing a direct enemy from outside and a potential internal enemy that turns up in that despairing situation. The insights drawn from Muhammad’s leadership approach are relevant to modern leadership and contemporary challenges, transcending religious and cultural contexts. This article contributes to the discourse on leadership, strategy, and crisis management, underscoring the enduring relevance of Muhammad's leadership principles which have proven effective in saving the situation.

From Fear to Understanding: Millennials’ Perceptions of Islam in Contemporary Society as a Basis for Interfaith Dialogue and Cooperation

This study aimed to describe the millennials' perception of Islam in contemporary society as a basis for interfaith dialogue and cooperation. A descriptive research method was utilized. Respondents were selected using stratified probability sampling. A total of 255 were used primarily as the respondents of this study. The data gathered were analyzed using the SPSS software V21x64. The statistical methods used were frequency and percentage counts, standard deviation, mean, and the grand mean. The respondents’ demographic profile relative to age, the 25-28 age group had more respondents than other age groups. As to sex, females dominated the number of respondents. In terms of tribe, most respondents are Cebuano. Regarding religious affiliation, Roman Catholics have a significant number of respondents and in educational attainment, most of the respondents are high school graduates. Millennials with a moderately high perception of Islam view the religious practices of Islam in a positive light. They may appreciate the emphasis on prayer, fasting, and charity as acts of devotion. Regarding cultural aspects of Islam, millennials with moderately high perceptions may appreciate the rich history and traditions associated with Islamic culture. Relative to governance, millennials with moderately high perceptions may acknowledge the influence of Islamic principles in shaping societies governed by law. They may recognize the importance of justice, fairness, and social welfare in Islamic governance systems and appreciate the emphasis on community and public welfare. Millennials with a moderately high perception of Islam will likely have a positive view of it, appreciating its religious practices, cultural contributions, and governance principles. They may also be open to learning more about Islam and engaging in interfaith dialogue and cooperation with practitioners of different religions.

Reviewing Political Hadith on System Monarchy, Theocracy, And Democracy: An Analysis of Justice and Religious Freedom

Purpose: This paper talks about hadiths related to politics in looking at monarchy, theocracy, and democracy system. Methods: This paper uses qualitative methods with the literature review approach related to political hadiths. Literature review approach starting from systematization to understand and analyze hadiths related to political aspects in Islam. Results and Conclusion: The results of this study revealed that there are fourteen hadiths related to politics and government in Islam. Hadith related to the principles of the monarchy system there are five hadiths. The hadith relating to the principles of the theocratic system are three hadiths. Hadiths relating to the principles of the democratic system are three hadiths. The hadiths related to politics and the system of monarchy, theocracy, and democracy as a guide that whatever system exists in government all have the basis of hadith. All three systems of government have an acceptance al-Hadith foundation. And there is not a single hadith that emphasizes that one system is the most correct. All of these systems can be applied in a government, as long as they can guarantee justice and religious freedom, this is the basis for running a government system. Research implications: The implications of this research are all of these systems, from monarchy system, theocratic system, democratic system can be applied in a government, as long as they can guarantee justice and religious freedom, this is the basis for running a government system. Originality/value: The Indonesian government must be encouraged and create regulations to realizing justice and religious freedom.

Clarice and the sweet pea of her sexual desires

In the aftermath of Iran's Islamic revolution, the representation and expression of women's sexuality have undergone stringent official censorship. Zoya Pirzad stands out among Iranian female authors for subtly challenging the Islamic regime's censorship of Iranian women's bodies and sexuality in her writings. In Things We Left Unsaid (2012), while articulating the sexual desires of her protagonist, Pirzad adeptly employed indirect writing techniques to safeguard her work from censorship. This article delves into the author's nuanced literary techniques, including similes, metaphors, idioms, symbols, allusions, haptic perception, and the portrayal of bodily effects, as means to subvert Iran's official censorship. Pirzad employs these literary tactics to discreetly depict her protagonist's illicit sexual relationship, interwoven with the author's critique of the government's repressive policies on women's rights. To understand the intricate dance between the said and unsaid in Pirzad's work, this article draws upon the insights of affect theory.

علامہ اقبال کا تصوراتحاد امت: ایک مطالعہ

In the realm of Islamic government, Ummah is the indivisible unity of nations, which is established by the Shiraz Bandi religion. Ummah is a special Islamic concept which is a manifestation of the ideological and social aspects of Islam. The philosophy of the emergence of the Muslim Ummah in the world depends on a natural process. The Ummah organizes all human beings in the form of a great community by eliminating the distinctions of nations, races and classes. Even in the world, it is like a single body. Islam remembers them with different names. Ummat Wahidah, Ummat Muslimah, Ummat Astya, Khairmat and Millat Ibrahimi etc. In these names, the name of Ummat Muslimah indicates the overall sufficiency of the Islamic society. Poet of the East, Hakim of the Nation, Dr. Allama Iqbal, when his personality, thought and artistic maturity reached its peak, his vision or poem became the center of the nation. Iqbal stopped thinking as an individual. He used to look at things from the eyes of the Ummah and think about every problem collectively. He weighed the benefits and losses in the scales of the Ummah and measured the good and evil with the scales of the Ummah. There came a time in Allama Iqbal's life that his mind was the spokesperson of the Ummah, his pen was the Ummah. Allama Iqbal wanted the unity of the Ummah, he wanted to see the Muslims as one nation, one Ummah and nation. It was his wish that people should adopt the Ummah code of conduct and spread it over the world. He wished that the Ummah should be red-faced in everything. So that success and rule would become their destiny.

Иран на пути к региональной интеграции: политические и экономические аспекты взаимоотношений с государствами-членами ШОС

The article examines Iran’s relationship with the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), analyses the process of establishing cooperation with the member states of this organization, primarily Russia and China, in the field of regional security, as well as the political and economic spheres. The history of Iran’s inclusion in the SCO, the dynamics of cooperation, as well as the impact of this interaction on regional and world politics are explored. The focus is on joint projects, diplomatic, trade and economic relations, as well as potential challenges and prospects for cooperation between Iran and the SCO. The work notes that Iran’s desire for full membership in this organization was reinforced by the confrontation with the leading Western powers led by the United States and fit into the framework of Eastern policy with the prospect of an alliance with Russia and China. It is emphasized that due to opposition to Iran’s desire to strengthen its independence and sovereignty, Western powers prevented its inclusion in the regional or international security architecture. Under these conditions, Iran has intensified its efforts in search of its place in the international security system, relying on the idea of national identity and drawing closer to Russia and China. It is noted that the negative consequences of sanctions, threats of military intervention, cyber warfare and attempts to destabilize the Islamic regime were the main methods of Western policy towards Iran. Based on this, accession to the SCO was considered by the Iranian leadership as the most important task to neutralize Western sanctions and become one of the leaders in the regional security system.

Good Corporate Governance Sebagai Implementasi Amanah Dalam Al-Qur’an (Tafsir QS. Al-Mu’minun)

The article aim is to know how Good Corporate Governance as implementation of trust in QS. Al Mu’minun. The research run by literature studies with qualitative analysis. Source of data this research from documentation studies. The result of study show that trust and promises in Islam are essential to uphold and fulfill if one wishes to be a fortunate and faithful individual. Safeguarding trust in the economic context involves effectively managing the company's resources. This responsible management is referred to as Good Corporate Governance. Based on these principles, the Best Practice Good Corporate Governance in Islam can be formulated to include: Fairness (QS. Al Mu’minun:3), Transparency (QS. Al Mu’minun:3), Accountability (QS. Al Mu’minun:8), and Fulfilling Zakat (QS. Al Mu’minun:4).

Islamization: A Sociological Approach

"Islamisation: A Sociological Approach" intricately explores the processes of cultivating an Islamic society. It delves into the interplay between individual and systemic transformations, aligning with Islamic doctrines. The meticulous examination includes integrating Islamic principles into societal frameworks, exploring social psychology, human soul cognition, schema control, behavioral modifications, community dynamics, and emotional management. The discourse spans foundational Islamisation aspects to constructing persuasive models, emphasizing the need for narratives resonating across the Islamic realm. The treatise addresses fostering uniformity in Islamic governance, focusing on human motivation, informational conformity, and aligning Islamic values with modern technologies. Contemplating the future trajectory, it juxtaposes scientific advancements with philosophical reflections, acknowledging challenges posed by conflicting secular liberal ideologies. The text highlights social media and educational initiatives' pivotal roles in nurturing close-knit Muslim community relationships. In conclusion, it underscores the necessity of managing cognitive schemas and mitigating extreme psychological reactance in Islamic societies, advocating for a harmonious blend of punitive measures and core Islamic values, contributing significantly to the discourse on contemporary Islamisation.

The Visual Narratives of the 1979 Iranian Revolution

This article analyzes a series of documentaries on the 1979 Iranian Revolution broadcast by Iran International and Manoto television channels. While covering the era of the Pahlavi dynasty, especially since the Second World War under Mohammad Reza Shah, the documentaries’ main goal is to present the era as a progressive epoch interrupted by a disastrous revolution. At the same time, they explain the Islamic government as a deviation from the path of progress led by the Pahlavis. By doing so, they dismiss the Pahlavi state as a root cause of the revolution, absolving it of the responsibility for its consequences, i.e. establishing an Islamic government. In contrast, this article highlights state politics as one of the main factors decisively shaping a historical process which culminated in the revolution. This makes the Pahlavi political order central to understand how the events in 1979 and afterwards unfolded.

The history of the birth of the secular Islamic state of Turkey and the idea of the renewal of Mustafa Kemal Ataturk

This article discusses the history of the birth of the secular Islamic State of Turkey and the ideas of reform carried out by Mustafa Kemal Ataturk in various fields and its transformation into a modern, secular state. The method used in this research is a literature review using a qualitative approach. The analysis used to analyze the data is content analysis. The research results show that Mustafa Kemal Ataturk was one of the qualified Islamic reformers of the 19th century. He has made a major contribution to changing the mindset of Turkish society. By changing the old order that had become a tradition in the Ottoman Empire, and forming it into a new face with a style of thinking that actually did not change "Islam" but only changed the mindset and order of life of Muslims to adapt to the demands of the times. Islamic values were formed, a caliphate, a republic and even a secular one. Even though symbols are also important, what is more important is that the people are able to convey the substance of Islam in every movement of their people's lives. His ideas have brought Turkey to become a developed country that is on par with the international world as well as proving that Islamic government is a government that is in line with the demands of the times.

Building Pious Generations in Turkey: The Islamization of Childhood in the Children's Magazine of the Directorate of Religious Affairs

AbstractThe present study examines the recent ideological and cultural apparatuses aimed at the Islamization of children in Turkey through the example of the Children's Magazine, published periodically by the Directorate of Religious Affairs (DRA). Since 2002, under the Islamist government in Turkey, the Directorate of Religious Affairs has progressively evolved into an ideological apparatus that operates in alignment with the government's social objectives. The DRA, supported by significant state funding, has become an institution that holds discussions on matters of family, children, youth, and gender. Seeking to align the government's ideological goals with the Islamization of society, the Directorate of Religious Affairs has placed special emphasis on cultural policies, media, and publishing. The Children's Magazine is one of the monthly publications produced by the Directorate of Religious Affairs, which has evolved into a significant cultural enterprise. The magazine conveys a religious pedagogy rooted in Sunni Hanafi Islam and a nationalist‐conservative family ideology. It not only reinforces the prevailing ideology on religious matters but also promotes the political strategies of the government and the newly established official historical narrative.

Social Theory and Navigating Indeterminacy: A Configurational Analysis of Iranian Youth’s Identity Construction in Contemporary Iran

An emerging disparity within contemporary social science highlights a disconnection between the world in the process of metamorphosing and cosmopolitanization and the knowledge of the social world that is still trapped in the cognitive assumptions of modern episteme, which provided the conditions for the emergence of modern social sciences a century ago. This divide inhibits the efficacy of social analysis in comprehending and elucidating contemporary phenomena. This article advocates for a shift in the ontology of social theory and science towards the cosmopolitanization of the world, characterized by the prioritization of indeterminacy and fluidity in the construction of social phenomena. It investigates the epistemological implications and prerequisites of this ontological transformation, favoring a post-foundationalist approach as the most suitable epistemological framework. In response to the challenges posed by the uncertainty and indeterminacy of cosmopolitanization, after reviewing some of the existing theoretical efforts to address and provide alternatives to this challenge, the article proposes the examination of social configurations as the most fitting subjects for study. This approach necessitates the suspension of conventional, given, regulated categories, and trans-historical theories. It underscores the importance of recognizing configurations as incomplete, contingent units shaped within specific historical contexts and moments. The fluidity, relationality, and indeterminacy of configurations situated between the universal and the singular make them suitable for analysis at the level of particular. After elaborating on the most important features of social configurations, finally, by employing the proposed theoretical framework, this article aims to investigate its effectiveness in analyzing the process of identity construction among Iranian youth in Tehran in the context of the cosmopolitanization of reality, particularly in the face of the Islamist regime of Iran’s official politics of identity. Through a review and revision of selected empirical studies on youth identity construction in the consumer spaces of Tehran, based on the idea of social configurations within the framework of cosmopolitanization, it is argued that the genuine understanding of identity politics in contemporary Iran is not rooted in conventional analytical norms and categories but rather in a comprehensible conceptual apparatus characterized by fluidity and indeterminacy, capable of effectively making sense of the conflict between the politics of determinacy and indeterminacy in Iranian everyday life.