Islamic Glass Research Articles

Nadine Schibille, Islamic Glass in the Making. Chronological and Geographical Dimensions

Nadine Schibille, Islamic Glass in the Making. Chronological and Geographical Dimensions

Geochemical variations in early Islamic glass finds from Bukhara (Uzbekistan)

Glass manufacturing processes and recipes changed fundamentally after the 8th century CE. The earlier centralised production system diversified, primary production sites multiplied, and the scale of individual productions contracted. Mineral soda was no longer used and instead replaced by plant ash as the main fluxing agent, affecting the chemical composition and properties of the glass. In this work, LA-ICP-MS and Raman spectroscopy were used to investigate the compositional and structural characteristics of 68 glass fragments recovered during recent excavations at Bukhara in Uzbekistan, dating to the 9th to early 11th centuries CE. This is the most extensive systematically collected and studied glass assemblage from Central Asia to date. The glass can be attributed to different origins, confirming on the one hand the diversification of glass production during the early Islamic period and, on the other hand, regional variations in the chemical compositions and network structure of soda-rich plant ash glasses. As clear archaeological evidence for early Islamic glass production sites in Central Asia is rare, regional production groups are distinguished primarily on relative concentrations of Mg, K, P, Cl, Li and Cs in relation to the plant ash component, while variabilities in Al, Ti, Cr, Y, Zr, Th and REEs and their ratios indicate different silica sources. Raman spectra suggest variations in network connectivity and Qn speciation that confirm compositional groupings and suggest structural differences between regional productions of plant ash glass. The results demonstrate a clear dominance of local or regional glass groups, while revealing the importation of Mesopotamian glass, notably a high-end colourless glass type from the region around Samarra in Iraq. The new analytical data allow further separation and characterisation of novel early Islamic plant-ash glass types and their production areas.

Early Islamic glass (7th- 10th centuries AD) in Unguja Ukuu, Zanzibar: A microcosm of a globalised industry in the early 'Abbasid period.

Eighty-two glass vessels, recovered from the excavations at the ancient Swahili settlement and port of Unguja Ukuu in Zanzibar, Eastern Africa, were analysed using laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS). The results show that all of the glass samples are soda-lime-silica glass. Fifteen glass vessels belong to the natron glass type and are characterised by low MgO and K2O (<1.50%), suggesting they were made from natron, a mineral flux that was widely used during the Roman period and Late Antiquity. Sixty-seven glass vessels belong to the plant ash glass type, characterised by high magnesia and potash levels (>1.50%), suggesting plant ash was the main alkali flux. Based on the major, minor and trace elements, three different compositional groups were identified for the natron glass and three were identified for the plant ash glass: (1) UU Natron Type 1, (2) UU Natron Type 2, (3) UU Natron Type 3, (4) UU Plant ash Type 1, (5) UU Plant ash Type 2 and (6) UU Plan ash Type 3. Comparison with contemporary Middle Eastern glass groups shows that UU Natron Types 1, 2 and 3 correspond to Egypt II high Na2O, Levantine I and Levantine II respectively, while UU Plant ash Type 1 matches closely with Samarra Group 2. UU Plant ash Types 2 and 3 have unique chemical fingerprints that do not match any of the contemporary plant ash glass groups, but their chemical compositions show some affinity with the old Sassanian plant ash glass, suggesting a possible Mesopotamian provenance. Combined with existing research on early Islamic glass, the authors reveal a complex trading network in the globalisation of Islamic glass, particularly involving glass corresponding to modern Iraq and Syria, in the 7th- 9th centuries AD.

Islamic glass in the Christian Kingdom of Alwa: Chemistry of shards from Soba, Nubia, Sudan

AbstractExcavations at Soba, the capital of Alwa, between 2019 and 2022 yielded more than 30 glass fragments in addition to a glass cosmetic bottle. An analysis of 30 glass samples has identified glass belonging to a number of compositional groups. The majority of fragments were made of plant ash‐soda glass produced in the Middle East (Iran, Iraq) between the 9th and 10th centuries, and in the Eastern Mediterranean (Levant and Egypt) between the mid‐10th and mid‐12th centuries. Seven fragments were made of mineral–soda‐lime glass produced in 9th‐century Egypt and three high‐lead glasses find analogies in the 9th‐ to 11th‐century glass. Archeological evidence, as well as textual sources, leave no doubt about Alwa’s intense transcultural connections. This article provides the first insight into the chemistry of glass shards from medieval Nubia, and the results of analysis contribute to evidence for long‐distance contacts of Soba, the capital of one of the medieval kingdoms of Sahelian Africa.

Medieval Islamic Glass Weights and Tokens in the Collection of the Museum of Decorative Arts in Prague

Medieval Islamic Glass Weights and Tokens in the Collection of the Museum of Decorative Arts in Prague

Micro-PIXE analysis of early Islamic (10th–11th century AD) glass vessels from the Tape-Bahram historical site in Ray, Iran

Micro-PIXE analysis of early Islamic (10th–11th century AD) glass vessels from the Tape-Bahram historical site in Ray, Iran

Origins and manufacture of the glass mosaic tesserae from the great Umayyad Mosque in Damascus

The Great Umayyad Mosque of Damascus built between about 706 and 714/15 CE is the oldest surviving mosque that still preserves large parts of its original architecture and decoration. The origins of the mosaic tesserae have been the subject of debate for more than a thousand years. The earliest sources written two centuries after the construction of the edifice claim a Byzantine origin of both, the material as well as the craftsmen. Here we use the compositional analyses of nearly 1,000 glass tesserae to show that 65% of the samples (80% of the coloured tesserae) from the mosque have a consistent chemistry and, by inference, originate from a common geographical source. Comparison with chemical data of early Islamic glass groups conclusively identifies Egypt as the origin of these tesserae and demonstrates that they are coeval with the foundation of the mosque. Additionally, the compositional features of the gold leaf tesserae testify to the systematic recycling and reuse of older material. Our findings suggest that the manufacture and supply of glass tesserae for the Great Mosque was a direct commission from the highest echelons of government.

Compositions of early Islamic glass along the Iranian Silk Road

The composition of archaeological glass reflects the geochemical nature of its raw materials. To determine the origins and distribution of early Islamic glasses from Iran, a set of 169 glass samples from five different sites was analysed by laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) of 58 elements. The glasses were classified into six different plant ash glass groups, three of which were attributed to a Mesopotamian origin, while three further groups are presumed to represent regional Iranian productions. The ratios of MgO/CaO and K2O/P2O5 of the different groups reflect variations in the plant ash component. Minor elements Cr, Ti, Zr, La and Th and their ratios proved effective in distinguishing the base glass types. Mapping their frequency across the Iranian plateau revealed the relative movement of glass and likely source areas. The decline in the frequency of glass types with elevated Cr/La ratios east of the Zagros Mountain range confirms that elevated Cr/La ratios together with an augmentation of the magnesium levels are features of Mesopotamian glass production apparently inherited from the geochemical environment of the Euphrates and Tigris river valleys. Some exceptionally clean Mesopotamian glasses made from a quartz-rich silica with low levels of accessory minerals are consistent with ninth-century glass from Samarra, which was evidently traded widely along the Silk Road network. No evidence of local glass production was detected in Nishapur. The Iranian groups were produced from a quartz-rich silica source, high in thorium but with different zirconium contents resulting in different Th/Zr ratios. Aluminium concentrations tend to increase from west to east, with the highest values found among glass assemblages from Central Asia.

Rare Alkali Elements as Markers of Local Glass Working in Medieval Tolmo de Minateda (Spain).

Analytical data of Roman and early Islamic glass established several primary glass production groups linked to glassmaking centres in the Levant and in Egypt. In contrast, the activities of secondary glass workshops are largely invisible in the compositional fingerprint of first millennium glass. Laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA‐ICP‐MS) of 261 glass finds from the Visigothic settlement of Tolmo de Minateda (Spain) revealed a site‐specific contamination pattern due to secondary glass processing and recycling, namely the enrichment of the glass batch by a unique combination of rare alkali elements (Li, K, Rb, Cs). With a median of 21 ppm, Li is particularly distinctive. Elevated lithium contents (Li>30 ppm) are also one of the characteristic features of Iberian plant ash glass from the Islamic period. The earliest known examples of this type of glass were found among the ninth‐century remains from Tolmo.

Politics of Production, Glass Provenance and Social Context on the Early Islamic Silk Roads

Islamic material culture is often either discussed in terms of its typology or its technological characteristics, as defined by scientific analysis, sometimes leading to its provenance. Here these aspects will be discussed in terms of their contrasting social, political and ritual contexts along the Eurasian Silk Roads. The concept of the terrestrial and maritime “Silk Roads” as routes of interaction is considered in terms of its definitions and indeed whether it is a useful term to use. The political context in which production occurred is considered, especially during the Abbasid caliphate, when the political centre shifted from Damascus to Baghdad. This shift in the centre of power is discussed in terms of the way it affected the growth and mass production of ceramics and glass during the golden age of Islam. The use of scientific analysis to investigate glass feeds into this discussion by providing evidence for increasingly more precise provenances and for trade, recycling and for production of different decorative vessel types in specific cosmopolitan hubs and therefore specialization. Moreover, evidence for a decentralized production model for glass and ceramics is discussed. Although the emphasis here is on glass in western Asia, the paper considers Islamic ceramics and glass in eastern Asia, especially during the Tang Dynasty. The social provenance of “exotic” material culture is tied to trade, exchange and gift giving and, in turn, to the acculturation of foreign populations in China, including Arabs and Sogdians. All these activities and factors, and the use of scientific analysis feed into the social, ritual, and economic values of material culture that occurs along the Silk Roads.

Islamic and Pre-Islamic Glass from Nippur

Excavation of Area WG at Nippur in 1989 yielded a large corpus of glass ranging in date from late Parthian to Islamic, mainly Abbasid. Islamic glass from Iraq is poorly studied and scrappily published, often concentrating on fancy, luxury vessels. This makes the large group of excavated, datable, domestic glassware from Nippur important for archaeologists dealing with the early Islamic period in Iraq and for those researching Abbasid glass. Further, I propose that Abbasid Levels III and II run later than suggested in the preliminary report, with Level II extending most likely into the early 10th century. This means that at least part of the site of Nippur remained occupied into the period when almost all of southern Iraq was severely depopulated. Finally, I raise the question of what can be gleaned from old, partial field records from a country devastated by decades of sanctions and war.

RECYCLING ROMAN GLASS TO GLAZE PARTHIAN POTTERY

Alkaline glazes were first used on clay-based ceramics in Mesopotamia around 1500 B.C., at the same time as the appearance of glass vessels. The Roman Empire used lead-based glazes, with alkaline natron glass being used only to produce objects of glass. Chemical analysis has had some success determining compositional groups for Roman/Byzantine/early Islamic glasses because of the discovery of major production sites. Parthian and Sasanian glass and glazed wares, however, have been found only in consumption assemblages, which have failed to inform on how they were made. Here we reanalyse compositional data for Parthian and Sasanian glazes and present new analyses for Parthian glazed pottery excavated at the early third century A.D. Roman military outpost of Ain Sinu in northern Iraq. We show that some Parthian glazes are from a different tradition to typical Mesopotamian glazes and have compositions similar to Roman glass. We propose that Roman glass was recycled by Parthian potters, thereby suggesting that as yet undiscovered Mesopotamian glass production centres ordinarily supplied glass for indigenous glazed pottery. Furthermore, if recycling glass to make glazed pottery was extended to indigenous glassware, this may provide an explanation for the paucity of Parthian and Sasanian glass in the archaeological record.

Glass production for the Silk Road? Provenance and trade of islamic glasses using isotopic and chemical analyses in a geological context

We report the first Nd and Sr results for sands from inland locations in the Middle East and new Nd and Sr results for coastal sand on the Syro-Palestinian coast. When the isotopic results for Belus sands are combined with our seven new sand samples from the Lebanon we have established the likely range of isotopic signatures for Levantine sand that was used for the manufacture of Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine and some Islamic glass in the area. The combined isotopic results for sands and Sr results for plants growing in Syria and the Lebanon provides an environmental base-line which has allowed us to identify 5 separate isotopic production zones. We have made direct comparisons with Nd and Sr signatures for raw furnace glasses from al-Raqqa (Syria) and Tyre (the Lebanon), secondary furnace glasses from Banias (Israel) and with new results for four raw glass fragments from the early 11th century CE Serçe Limani shipwreck excavated off the coast of Turkey. We have also compared the base line isotopic data with our new isotopic data for twenty one 9th-14th CE Islamic plant ash glass vessel fragments from Damascus and Beirut, and with published isotopic data for al-Raqqa vessel glass. For the first time we have been able to provide a more secure provenance for the late 11th century CE Serçe Limani raw glass. It was made from Levantine coastal sand, or an equivalent source of geologically young sand, and has a Sr signature that suggests a production provenance in the Palestinian area, but not in established centres such as Tyre as has been suggested. We are able to suggest an inland isotopic provenance for 9th-12th century Islamic vessel fragments from al-Raqqa, Beirut and Damascus which probably coincides with an area in or near Damascus. Two al-Raqqa vessel glasses with elevated potassium oxide levels and distinctive Nd and Sr signatures may have a central Asian origin. This environmental approach involving isotopic analysis of sands and plants has provided a more sensitive way of provenancing Islamic plant ash glasses found in the Syro-Palestinian area and in Turkey than the use of trace elements has thus far. The five separate production centres/zones we have defined have provided more evidence for a decentralised system of Islamic plant ash glass production, also found across extensive areas of the Silk Road, at least as far as northern Iran.

The study of the historical development of glass in ancient times

Abstract: This paper discusses historical development of glass in ancient times, identify the most important characteristics of glass in every era of time, through the study of their properties, chemical composition of the types of glass and production methods, through the study of some archaeological models of global museums to reach the most distinctive characteristics of each era ,The aim of this paper is to explore these aspects by using a combination of focused studies and case studies in various ancient and historical periods. Each case study in ancient Egyptian period, Roman Middle East, and the Islamic world.keywords: historical development of glass, Ancient Egyptian, Roman glass, Islamic glass, chemical composition, glass techniques.I. INTRODUCTION Ancient Egyptian GlassAs early as the third millennium B.C., craftsmen in Mesopotamia discovered how to glaze jewelry and small objects with colored glass. The new material joined other vitreous glazes, like faience, as a less expensive substitute for rare and precious stones, such as lapis lazuli. Subsequent developments, especially the use of simple molds, enabled craftsmen to form objects entirely from glass.In all likelihood, the Egyptians learned glassmaking from their Asiatic neighbors, possibly from captives taken during Egyptian military campaigns in the East under the eighteenth-dynasty pharaoh Thutmosis III (1490–1436 B.C.). The glass industry, once transplanted to Egypt, grew vigorously, fueled in part by the abundance of the raw materials required to manufacture glass. Egyptian workshops not only produced a variety of wares for consumption by the royal court and aristocrats, who could afford such luxuries, but also exported large quantities of raw glass.

Nasionalisme Dan Identitas Muslim (Telaah Aksiologi Pendidikan Islam)

Nationalism and muslim identity is a typical character that belongs to the nation of Indonesia, although both are different in substance but have in common the principle, nationalism is the consciousness of a nation that has then gave birth to feelings of love towards the motherland. While the muslim identity is practised Islamic teachings and culture of Islam which was later arrested as a muslim identity. By using the method of the study the research library produces a correlation between nationalism and muslim identity. If seen through the eyes of axiology of education Islamic glass. Delivering the country's population of nationalism being loving his homeland and therefore surely he would feel comfortable living in his country. Similarly, Muslim identity or expression of Islam practised impressed different, but in the end had the same purpose, namely to practice God's commands and away from the restriction, which will ultimately deliver mankind to happiness in world and in the hereafter.

Streams across the Silk Roads? The case of Islamic glass from Ghazni

This paper presents data obtained by a combined chrono-typological and archaeometric study carried out on an assemblage of glassware and bracelets unearthed at the Ghaznavid Palace of Ghazni, Afghanistan. Pulsating trade and cultural centre located along the Silk Roads, the site of Ghazni has yielded evidence of an uninterrupted archaeological sequence, with settlement continuity spanning from pre-Islamic (2nd–9th/10th CE) to Islamic periods (end 10th–19th CE). Both glassware and bracelets were manufactured by using a plant ash-based glass, in line with Central Asian glassmaking technology. Furthermore, several compositional groups were identified, showing close affinities with other assemblages from Central Asia, Uzbekistan and Jordan.

Chronology of early Islamic glass compositions from Egypt

Compositional data of archaeological glasses offer an opportunity to trace the movement of materials in the ancient and medieval world. The lack of a comprehensive record of well-dated samples from Egypt, one of the major producers of glass throughout the first millennium CE, has limited the systematic application of a chronological and geographical model. Here, we report LA-ICP-MS results of Islamic glass weights and stamps from Egypt that provide a precise record of high temporal resolution of glass compositions from Abd al-Malik's monetary reform in 697 CE to the year 1020 CE. This period covers several radical changes in Islamic glassmaking. After a significant hiatus in the production of glass weights between the last quarter of the ninth and the middle of the tenth century we see the advent of novel glassmaking recipes based on the use of soda-rich plant ash. Our study establishes a temporal model that serves as a tool for dating archaeological glass assemblages, as well as a geographical model that allows for a clear classification of Levantine and Egyptian plant ash glasses.

Geochemistry of Byzantine and Early Islamic glass from Jerash, Jordan: Typology, recycling, and provenance

AbstractTwenty‐two objects of glass from the Decapolis city of Gerasa, N. Jordan, with characteristic vessel forms ranging from Hellenistic to Early Islamic (2nd century BCE to 8th century CE) were analyzed for major and trace elements, and 16 samples for Sr‐isotopes. The majority were produced in the vicinity of Apollonia on the Palestine coast in the 6th–7th centuries CE, and strong inter‐element correlations for Fe, Ti, Mn, Mg, Nb reflect local variations in the accessory minerals in the Apollonia glassmaking sand. The ubiquity of recycling is reflected in elevated concentrations and high coefficients of variation of colorant‐related elements as well as a strong positive correlation between K and P. The high level of K contamination is attributed to the use of pomace (olive processing residue) as fuel, and a negative correlation with Cl, due to volatilization as the glass was reheated. This points to an efficient system for the collection of glass for recycling in Jerash during the latter part of the first millennium CE. Differences in elemental behavior at different sites in the Levant may reflect the context of the recycling system, for example, glass from secular contexts may contain less colorants derived from mosaics than glass associated with churches.

Changes in the Signature of Cobalt Colorants in Late Antique and Early Islamic Glass Production

Prior to the eighteenth century, cobalt was exclusively employed as a colouring agent for vitreous materials, and its use appears to be concurrent with the earliest large-scale production of glass during the Late Bronze Age (LBA). LBA cobalt deposits with a distinctive elemental signature have been identified in the oases of the western Egyptian desert, while cobalt mines in Kashan (Iran) and in the Erzgebirge (Germany) are known to have been exploited during the later Middle Ages. For most of the first millennium BCE and CE, however, the identity of cobalt sources and their supply patterns remain elusive. The aim of this study is to characterise the chemical composition of cobalt colorants used during the first millennium CE. Compositional variations indicate the use of different raw materials and/or production processes, which in turn has implications for the underlying exchange networks. Using mainly correlations between cobalt, nickel and zinc as discriminants, our results show that the compositional signature of cobalt underwent two major changes. An increase in the CoO/NiO ratios occurs between the late fourth and the beginning of the sixth century, while a new zinc-rich source of cobalt begins to be exploited during the second half of the eighth century in the Islamic world.

The trade of glass beads in early medieval Illyricum: towards an Islamic monopoly

The trade of glass beads has long been assumed to have been under Islamic dominance during the early centuries following the Arab conquest of the Middle East, judged by the prevalence of Islamic beads in the archaeological contexts from Viking Scandinavia to medieval Morocco. This paper explores the impact of the Byzantine-Slavic transition on the use and by extension trade of glass beads in the Balkans from the seventh to the ninth century CE. A series of 48 glass beads and 4 vessel fragments from two excavated sites in modern day Albania have been analysed morphologically, technologically and chemically by LA-ICP-MS. The seventh-century beads from Lezha have typological parallels among central European assemblages and are made from recycled natron-type glass. The presence of a high lead-iron-natron variant is of particular interest as it potentially reflects a regional production. The ninth-century beads from Komani are made from soda-rich plant ash glass from the eastern Mediterranean and Mesopotamia and correspond to an Islamic typology. The chronological and geographical differences are reflected in the distinctive cobalt sources used for the two groups. While the beads from Lezha are coloured with a cobalt not correlated with any particular element, the cobalt source of the Komani samples is associated with zinc, typical of Islamic glass making. It thus appears that the supply of beads during the seventh century when the Balkans were under Slavic occupation relied on regional production and recycled material, and that a long-distance trade with the eastern Mediterranean was revived following the Byzantine re-conquest of the south-eastern Adriatic in the ninth century. Intriguingly, the Albanian finds confirm the Islamic control of the production and trade of glass beads during this period and highlight the mediatory role of the Byzantine Empire.