Islamic Glass Research Articles

Compositional observations for Islamic Glass from Sīrāf, Iran, in the Corning Museum of Glass collection

The medieval port city of Sīrāf (ca. 800–1050CE) on the north coast of the Persian/Arabian Gulf linked the core lands of the ‘Abbāsid caliphate with India, China, Africa, and beyond. 101 glass fragments recovered from the 1966–1973 excavations at Sīrāf and now at the Corning Museum of Glass were analysed using LA-ICPMS in order to explore the glassmaking raw materials and technology of the objects found within the city, as well as to address issues of the production and trade of glass during the Islamic period. The results indicate that the main groups of glass at Sīrāf likely date to the 9th–early 11th centuries and can be subdivided by the trace elements zirconium and chromium. Chemical matches with some likely Indian glass, and with glass finds from South and Southeast Asia, underline the pivotal role of the Gulf in the eastward movement of Islamic glass via the Indian Ocean trade network, as well as the influx of Indian glass into the Islamic world. Glass bangles and a small number of vessel fragments likely date to the late 11th century or later, and their chemical compositions indicate different production origins.

Glass import and production in Hispania during the early medieval period: The glass from Ciudad de Vascos (Toledo).

One hundred and forty-one glass fragments from medieval Ciudad de Vascos (Toledo, Spain) were analysed by laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS). The glasses fall into three types according to the fluxing agents used: mineral natron, soda-rich plant ash, and a combination of soda ash and lead. The natron glasses can be assigned to various established primary production groups of eastern Mediterranean provenance. Different types of plant ash glasses indicate differences in the silica source as well as the plant ash component, reflecting changing supply mechanisms. While the earlier plant ash groups can be related to Islamic glasses from the Near East, both in terms of typology and composition, the chemical signature of the later samples appear to be specific to glass from the Iberian Peninsula. This has important implications for our understanding of the emerging glass industry in Spain and the distribution patterns of glass groups and raw materials. The plant ash that was used for the Vascos glasses is rich in soda with low levels of potash, similar to ash produced in the eastern Mediterranean. It could therefore be possible that Levantine plant ash was imported and used in Islamic period glass workshops in Spain. Unlike central and northern Europe where an independent glass industry based on potassium-rich wood ash developed during the Carolingian period, the prevalence of soda ash and soda ash lead glass on the Iberian Peninsula indicates its commercial and technological interconnection with the Islamic east. Our study thus traces several stages leading to the development of a specifically Spanish primary glassmaking industry.

The Silk Road or the Sea?

This article considers the movement of commodities manufactured in southern Iraq during the Sasanian and Early Islamic periods to the furthest eastern extremity of the Old World: to the archipelago of Japan. In particular the focus is on two categories of non-perishable finds that survive within the archaeological record: glass vessels and turquoise blue alkaline glazed ceramic jars. We begin by providing an outline of the definition and dating of what is a commonplace and widely distributed ceramic product within the Middle East and western Indian Ocean area. It is then possible to place these finds within a broader context by reviewing the evidence for the earliest West Asian exports to Japan and what these might tell us about the mechanisms of their transmission and circulation and the role of such imports within an East Asian context. Specifically these include glass vessels dated to the Sasanian period followed some time later by ceramic vessels manufactured at the time of the Abbasid Caliphate. The continued arrival of Islamic glass into this later period is not a subject that will be covered specifically as it does not contribute directly to the main arguments that are developed below. Finally the finds are used to shed light on the broader debate surrounding the development of the Indian Ocean economy and to what extent Japan itself may have been commercially integrated within a wider commodity exchange network.

Islamic glass from area U (2012–2013)

Excavations by a PCMA team from the University of Warsaw in area U of the Kom el-Dikka site in Alexandria in 2012–2013 yielded a fair number of glass fragments. The assemblage comprised two distinct chronological groups: early Roman to late Roman/early Byzantine and Islamic-period glass. It consisted of plain, ordinary tableware, often made of very poor quality glass, undoubtedly of local, Alexandrian production, as well as luxury vessels, decorated in various techniques, representing imports, probably from Syria.

Investigation of an enameled glass mosque lamp: a 13th–14th-century Mamluk example or 19th-century European version?

In this study, an enameled glass mosque lamp in the Brooklyn Museum collection is investigated to elucidate the origin and date of production of each of its components—the body, handles, wick-holder, and foot—to establish whether the lamp was produced during the Mamluk period (13th–14th century) or is a 19th-century European creation. Using X-ray fluorescence spectrometry and scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry (SEM–EDS), the body, handles, and wick-holder were found to exhibit identical composition. The lamp’s foot, however, presents a dissimilar composition, one significantly richer in sodium, magnesium, and potassium. The matrix compositions, colorants, and opacifiers of the body’s enamel decorations were characterized by SEM–EDS and Raman spectroscopy analyses and compared with Mamluk and 19th-century production. The lamp’s body, handles, and wick-holder were produced using the same type of glass, one likely incorporating a plant ash flux typical of medieval Islamic glass. Materials composing the body’s enamel decorations are consistent with Mamluk production. The foot’s distinct composition indicates that it is a later addition to the object. Combining the analytical, stylistic, and historical evidences, this glass lamp can now be identified as a Mamluk example, one of few comprising an integral wick-holder. The presence of a wick-holder is discussed and connected to the small size of the lamp. Details informing understanding of the lamp’s manufacture are also included. The implications of these new findings on the object’s conservation treatment and display are discussed in the context of the upcoming reinstallation of the Arts of the Islamic World gallery at the Brooklyn Museum.

From the Mediterranean to the Libyan Sahara. Chemical analyses of Garamantian glass

This paper presents the results of electron microprobe analysis of 124 samples of glass from sites in Libya, most from the Saharan oasis belt of the Wadi al-Ajal. Imported Roman vessel glass; beads; vitreous production waste; and Islamic glass bangles have all been analysed, and provide the first chemical information on glass from this region.

Electron Microprobe Analysis of 9th-12th Century Islamic Glass from Córdoba, Spain

Twenty-six samples from domestic assemblages of 9th–12th century Cordoba were subjected to electron microprobe analysis. The results reveal two main compositional types. The first, encountered in 13 of the samples, seems to result from the combination of plant ashes with high-impurity sand, and has some contemporary parallels from Syria and Egypt. The second type is a lead–soda–silica glass, encountered in a relatively high proportion of the glasses (11 of the 26 sampled), possibly formed by the addition of lead metal to existing glasses and with very few known parallels. These are among a very small number of results available to date on the chemical composition of glasses from medieval Spain, and the presence of a high proportion of lead–soda–silica glasses is particularly interesting, possibly indicating a technological practice unique to, or originating in, the western Muslim world.

Islamic glass weights from Egypt: A systematic study by non-destructive μ-XRF technique

Forty-five Islamic glass weights from a private collection were analyzed by non-destructive micro X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (μ-XRF), with the aim of determining whether an evaporite or sodic ash was used as a source for the introduction of the network modifier in the glass batch. Due to inscriptions or legends impressed on the weights, which were used as reference samples for coinage, thirty-five of them can be dated from the Fatimid age, other three might be assigned to the Mamluk age, while the remaining are of unknown date.Seventeen major, minor and trace elements were determined. The obtained results show that the composition of most of the analysed samples is consistent with a production based on the use of sodic plant ash, due to the relatively high contents of K2O (between 1.8 and 4.6wt.%) and MgO (between 1.9 and 3.9wt.%). Aluminium and calcium contents mainly range between 1.0 and 3.5wt.% Al2O3, and between 5 and 11wt.% CaO, respectively, while FeO and MnO levels do not generally exceed 1wt.%, apart from deeply coloured items. As for trace elements, strontium and zirconium contents are mainly lower than 400 and 100ppm, respectively. Two opaque samples of late Fatimid age feature relatively high lead (some 15 and 4wt.% PbO) and tin contents (some 8 and 16wt.% SnO2).

R.R. Vasmer and His Hand-written Catalogue of Tabarestān drachms

Abstract The present article concerns the hand-written catalogue of Tabarestān drachms, composed by the famous Russian orientalist R.R. Vasmer (1888-1938), in the possession of the State Hermitage Museum. The catalogue constitutes an integral part of Vasmer’s hand-written legacy, preserved in the Numismatic Department of the State Hermitage Museum, including 8 volumes of the catalogue of pre-Mongol Islamic coins and 1 volume of the catalogue of Islamic glass weights and stamps The catalogue of Tabarestān drachms (Tabari dirhams) contains detailed descriptions of 129 coins: 23 specimens of which belong to the Dabuyid coinage, and 106 were struck by the ‘Abbasid Governors of Tabarestān. Despite the fact that the catalogue was compiled between 1910 and 1916 it is still unpublished and remains a very important reference for studying the history of Tabarestān’s numismatics, in particular, and early Islamic numismatics, in general.

Characterization of enameled glass excavated from Laem Pho, southern Thailand

Laem Pho in Surat Thani, southern province of Thailand is one of the most important historic site on the eastern shore of the Gulf of Thailand. In this work, the enameled glass fragments which looked-like Islamic glass mainly excavated from this site were analyzed using SEM-EDS, PIXE and μ-XRF, in order to understand the chemical composition by comparing the archaeological data and topology. The structure of the enameled decoration was also studied. The resulting data indicated that high-magnesia alkali-lime silicate glass was produced. The presence of transition metals such as copper, iron and manganese were affected on the glass colorations. Typological classifications, technological observations and comparative studies serve to clarify the development and cultural inter-relationships of various glass objects along the trade and exchange networks in ancient maritime.

Study on the glasswares discovered in the underground palace of the Da Bao En Temple in the North Song Dynasty (AD960-AD1127) in Nanjing, China

Built by the royal family in the Ming Dynasty, the Da Bao En Temple is known as the greatest temple in ancient Nanjing, whose predecessor is the Chang Gan Temple built in the Six Dynasties. Archaeological excavations of the Da Bao En Temple and the underground palace of Chang Gan Temple built in the North Song Dynasty (AD960-AD1127) have been appraised as one of the 10 greatest archaeological discoveries in 2010 in China. Many artefacts discovered in the underground palace have shown their important historical meanings and scientific values, such as the Qibao King Asoka Tower, golden and silver coffins, Buddhist relics, the silk textiles, glasses, and spices etc. In this paper, stereomicroscope, SEM-EDS and LA-ICP-AES are used to investigate chemical composition, microstructure and current preservation status for the unearthed glasswares. The results indicate that the glass bottle coded as TH1 and the glass calyx coded as TN5 are made of lead-silicate glass, while the chemical composition of the glass bottle coded as TN9 is quite distinct from that of native glasswares. All three articles have been weathered in some degrees. Given the shape, it is deduced that TH1 is a typical glassware used in burying Buddhist relics at that time, TN5 a domestic glassware with typical Sassanian style, and TN9 an imported Islamic glass, providing important information about culture exchanges between China and the foreign countries in the North Song Dynasty.

Recent Work on the Monetary and Metrological History of Egypt, 868–1517 C.E.

It is a truism in the fields of Islamic history that those who study the course of Islam in Egypt are blessed with a relative abundance of surviving primary sources, whether they be literary, documentary, archaeological, or material. This is also the case for numismatic evidence. In fact, the coinages of Muslim Egypt (and of the Syrian areas controlled by dynasties based in Egypt) are the subject of one of the deepest historiographies in Islamic numismatics. From the early catalogues of the British Museum and Khedival collections edited by Stanley Lane-Poole in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, to the 1982 catalogue of the Egyptian National Collection prepared by an Egyptian–American team and published by the American Research Center in Egypt, to subsections of numerous other catalogues, many specimens of Egyptian coinage have been made available for study. Using this numismatic evidence, from 1956 to 1980 the coinages of three Egyptian dynasties were analyzed in separate and significant monographs: Oleg Grabar’s The Coinage of the Tulunids (New York: American Numismatic Society, 1957); Paul Balog’s Coinage of the Mamlūk Sultans of Egypt and Syria (New York: American Numismatic Society, 1964); and Balog’s The Coinage of the Ayyūbids (London: Royal Numismatic Society, 1980). While these three works did not and do not represent the final word about these coinages, in bringing the numismatic evidence to a wider audience of scholars interested in related topics they in turn stimulated further numismatic scholarship. Until recently, however, the numismatic developments of the Ikhshīdid period (935–969) and the Fāṭimid period (969–1171) lacked focused studies aiming for comprehensive treatment of those eras. The appearance of three works published over 2006–2007 have filled this lacuna. 1 (This leaves only the Ottoman period of Egypt without its own monographic treatment. Coins minted in Egypt prior to the rise of the Ṭūlūnids are best approached as subsections of Umayyad and ʿAbbāsid numismatics.) Moreover, the recent posting of a digital resource presenting the entire holding of Islamic glass weights preserved in the Gayer-Anderson Museum provides a useful resource for those interested in the small-scale metrology of Islamic Egypt. As a result, students and scholars now have at their fingertips a chronologically comprehensive set of references to aid in their study of numismatics and wider monetary history for Islamic Egypt. Moreover, these works solidify the important roles played by Jere L. Bacharach and Norman D. Nicol, who along with Paul Balog (d. 1982) have done so much to advance the field.

μ-XRF analysis of glasses: a non-destructive utility for cultural heritage applications

This paper presents a μ-XRF analytical approach for a non-destructive study of Cultural Heritage glass finds. This technique can be used for quantitative analysis of small volumes of solid samples, with a sensitivity that is superior to the electron microprobe but inferior to an ICP-MS system. An experimental set-up with natural and synthetic glass standards is proposed here for the quantitative analyses of major and trace elements on glass objects which cannot be sampled such as small archaeological or historical artefacts from Cultural Heritage. The described method, performed by means of the commercial μ-XRF Eagle III-XPL, was applied to Islamic glass specimens of Sasanian production (III-VII century A.D.) previously analyzed by ICP-MS and SEM-EDS techniques (P. Mirti, M. Pace, M. Negro Ponzi and M. Aceto, Archaeometry, 2008, 50(3), 429-450; P. Mirti, M. Pace, M. Malandrino and M. Negro Ponzi, J. Archaeol. Sci., 36, 1061-1069; and M. Gulmini, M. Pace, G. Ivaldi, M. Negro Ponzi and P. Mirti, J. Non-Cryst. Solids, 2009, 355, 1613-1621) and coming from the archaeological site of Veh Ardasir in modern Iraq. Major elements (Na, Mg, Al, Si, K, Ca, Fe) of glass specimens show an accuracy better than 5%. Trace elements (Cr, Mn, Sr and Zr) display an accuracy better than 5% when the checked elements have a concentration >100 ppm by weight, whereas it is around 10% with a concentration <100 ppm by weight. μ-XRF is, therefore, a suitable elemental analysis technique for the non-destructive study of small glass finds due to its relatively good accuracy, reproducibility and low detection limits (∼tens ppm).

Stefano Carboni. Review of "Islamic Glass in The Corning Museum of Glass" by David Whitehouse.

Stefano Carboni. Review of "Islamic Glass in The Corning Museum of Glass" by David Whitehouse.

Islamic glass in the Corning Museum of Glass: v.1: Objects with scratch-engraved and wheel-cut ornament

Islamic glass in the Corning Museum of Glass: v.1: Objects with scratch-engraved and wheel-cut ornament

Glass gilding process in medieval Syria and Egypt (13th–14th century)

Twelve gilded and enamelled Islamic glass fragments, produced in Syria or Egypt during the Ayyubid or Mamluk period, were provided by the Louvre museum for complete non-destructive analysis. The enamelling process of similar objects has been extensively studied in the last decades, but the gilding process has never been investigated in details. This paper focuses on the understanding of both the gilding process and the gold/glass adhesion mechanism. The structure, composition and thickness of the gold flakes forming the gilding decoration are measured. The complete process combining gilding and enamelling is described and the local mechanism of adhesion of gold flakes on the glass body is discussed.

Islamic glasses from Al-Andalus. Characterisation of materials from a Murcian workshop (12th century AD, Spain)

Abstract Rescue archaeological excavations at an urban glass workshop of the 12th century AD in the city of Murcia (Spain) have provided one of the few evidences of glass production in the ancient Islamic territory of Al-Andalus. This paper reports the results derived from a chemical–physical characterisation study carried out on a representative sample set of glass fragments and industrial debris from that workshop. The main objectives of the research were to contribute to the knowledge of the type of glasses produced and provide some insights into the technology developed to obtain different colours in glasses. The resulting data indicated that both high-magnesia plant ash (HMG) soda-lime-silicate and soda-lime lead-silicate glasses were produced. They also indicated a deep knowledge of glass colouring techniques, which suggests that a careful control over the glass melting processes was achieved. Among others, the occurrence of bulk-coloured silver yellow and copper ruby red transparent glasses prove the skills reached by Murcian glassmakers. These results shed new light on the Islamic glass technology of a geographical area in which, up to now, little compositional and technological data from glass workshops were available.

Change in chemical composition of early Islamic glass excavated in Raya,Sinai Peninsula, Egypt: on-site analyses using a portable X-ray fluorescence spectrometer

The Raya port (eighth to 12th centuries) on the Sinai Peninsula, Egypt, was one of the important port cities for the Red Sea trade. We performed on-site analyses of Islamic glass vessels (used in eighth to 11th centuries) mainly from this site in Egypt using a portable XRF spectrometer. The aim of this paper is to contribute to our understanding of the chemical compositions of early Islamic glass vessels by comparing their archaeological date and typology. In the early Islamic period, glass objects were mainly produced from natron as the soda source. Among the natron glass analyzed in this study, glass vessels with low titanium and iron and high strontium contents, which were probably produced in the Syria–Palestine region, were excavated in the eighth century layer. From the ninth century layer, a large number of samples with high levels of calcium, titanium and iron, probably produced in Egypt, were found. It should be noted that a large number of glass vessels with this chemical composition were found at the Raya site, because this type of glass was rarely reported from other Islamic sites. We finally concluded that this type of glass seems to be produced under a fixed recipe, although some samples contain a colorant or decolorized materials.

Einige Glasgeräte der arabischen Alchemie

From an as yet unpublished collection, kept in the Linden Museum, Stuttgart, of some 20 Islamic glass items, 12 objects with an alchemical background have been selected and studied in detail. The most important items are two alchemical still heads which, according to an alchemical manuscript of al-Kindī, a significant 9^th century Arabian philosopher, natural scientist, mathematician, physician and musician, are identified as still heads for the watersteam distillation of camphor in particular. Additionally the publication presented here features a medical utensil (probably recent), a measuring jug, a funnel, a mortar, a pestle, a test tube most probably 19^th century and four small bottles - probably for perfume. Most of the objects originate in Iran, but some are from Egypt, Afghanistan and Palestine and date mainly from the 9^th to the 13^th century AD. Some misinterpretations and ambiguities to be found in the literature have been corrected and eliminated.

A Raman spectroscopic study of the Mapungubwe oblates: glass trade beads excavated at an Iron Age archaeological site in South Africa

AbstractOblate seed beads (2–4 mm) excavated on Mapungubwe hill, an Iron Age site in South Africa, were analysed with Raman microscopy and supportive techniques to determine the glass technology and pigments used to produce the beads. The Raman spectra and XRF analysis of the beads classify the glass as a typical soda/lime/potash glass similar to Islamic glass from the 8th century (Ommayad), but with higher levels of aluminium, iron and magnesium. The turquoise, bright green, bright yellow and orange colours were obtained by utilizing a combination of cassiterite (SnO2) and lead tin yellow type II (PbSn1−xSixO3). Doping with cobalt and manganese produced dark blue and plum‐coloured beads. The Fe‐S chromophore was detected through its resonance‐enhanced spectrum in the black beads. Corrosion of the black beads was investigated and an organic phase detected on the beads, which might have influenced the corrosion process. This detailed profile of the glass technology used to produce the Mapungubwe oblates might eventually help to determine their provenance. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.