Cost Of Irrigation Water Research Articles

Awareness and adoption level of fish farmers regarding recommended fish farming practices in Hafizabad, Pakistan

Abstract Food security for human beings on globe is becoming increasingly important on a worldwide level. Factors responsible for low fish production are lack of information, poor fisheries extension services, feed adulteration, low water quality, high construction cost and non-availability of irrigation water. The present study was designed to investigate the adoption level of recommended fish production practices by the fish farmers in district Hafizabad. The data were collected from 135 fish farmers of Tehsil Hafizabad through validated and reliable interview schedule. The data were analyzed through SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences) for computing results and drawing conclusions. From results, significant association was observed between socio-economic characteristics such as age, education and size of land holdings of fish farmers and their awareness and adoption level regarding recommended fish farming practices. The interviewed respondents were mostly young, educated with sufficient resource capitals that are related to fisheries and agriculture. Most of the population (about 90%) were aware of basic fish farming practices (nursery, feed, intercultural, fish rate, rice powder, fertilizer, harvest), and about half population was aware about the technicalities of quality production (water and soil quality) from which half had adopted that. All of the population was aware about and adopted recommended water application to pond. They were little known to few fish diseases (spot and kidney disease), as compared to having good knowledge and adoption about other major insects and pest attack. Constraining factors found were lack of information, poor fisheries extension services, uncertainty in the market, load-shedding problem, impaired soil and water quality, feed adulteration, limited credit facilities, high construction cost, and non-availability of irrigation water, which implies immediate efforts and enforced policies by the Fisheries Department to educate and facilitate fish farming process starting right from the farm development till marketing.

Economic feasibility of implementing regulated deficit irrigation with reclaimed water in a grapefruit orchard

This study, conducted from 2005 to 2014, assessed the long-term economic viability of irrigating a commercial grapefruit orchard with saline reclaimed water (RW) combined or not with a regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) strategy. During the first three years after plantation, trees were full irrigated (100% of the crop evapotranspiration; ETc) with fresh surface water (TW; electrical conductivity about 1dSm−1) pumped from the “Tagus-Segura” water transfer canal. Then, from the fourth year onwards, two water sources, TW and RW (electrical conductivity of 3.0dSm−1) were used, and two irrigation treatments, a control treatment (TW and RW irrigated 100% of ETc) and a RDI treatment (TW-RDI and RW-RDI irrigated 50% of ETc during the 2nd stage of fruit growth) were performed. A discounted cash flow analysis (DCFA), which considered an orchard life period of 20 years, was performed to determine the profitability of different irrigation strategies. It evidenced that irrigation with TW was the most economically feasible option up to a TW price of 0.16€m−3, whereas from this water value, RW began to be the most profitable treatment. In a context of water scarcity where water availability is limited and RDI strategies must be performed, the use of TW-RDI was advised up to a water price of 0.38€m−3, but from this threshold, RDI with RW became the most profitable option due to its lower irrigation water cost. The grapefruit selling price had a clear effect on the profitability of the different treatments and showed full irrigated treatments as the most profitable. A fruit selling price below 0.08€kg−1 produced negative net present values for all the treatments.

The cost of irrigation sources and water treatment in greenhouse production

Uncertainty about the cost of water treatment is a potential barrier to adoption of irrigation treatment and recycling. The objective of this study was to estimate the cost of irrigation-water filtration and sanitation based on a survey of 11 greenhouse operations. Screen filtration of ebb-and-flood irrigation water cost ($0.02–$0.17 per 1000 gal) less than filtration using synthetic fiber rolls ($0.08–$2.97 per 1000 gal). Technologies to control pathogens and biofilm ranged between $0.07 per 1000 gal for chlorine gas to $1.00 per 1000 gal for a copper ionization system. Irrigation water sources ranged in cost from $0.02 per 1000 gal for pond water to $6.43 per 1000 gal for municipal water. Sanitation increased this cost by $0.07–$1.00, and water-soluble fertilizers added $3.80. Case studies of three growers illustrated that water quality issues such as equipment clogging or plant pathogens can increase production cost, and in many cases, water treatment and recirculation provide economic savings. Our analysis emphasizes that the cost and quality of the initial water source, the cost of production losses from quality issues, and the cost of treatment should all be considered to make informed decisions on irrigation water sources and system design.

Estimation of farmers’ willingness to pay for water in the agricultural sector

Increasing the reliability of irrigation water raises the cost of water storage and the price that farmers must pay for water. Evaluating farmers’ willingness to pay (WTP) for water is key to determining the reliability of irrigation water achievable. This paper presents a probabilistic optimization method for estimating the WTP to avoid water shortage. A nonlinear programming model was formulated to model water use and estimate a single farmer’s WTP when water shortage occurs. The model was subsequently expanded to include the WTP of a group of farmers relying on Monte Carlo simulation. Results show that low water prices do not have any effect on water use when there is no shortage of water. Facing water shortage, farmers employ irrigation systems with high efficiency to reduce the use and cost of irrigation water. They also change the cropping pattern to cultivate crops with low water requirements. The farmers’ WTP for irrigation water during shortage is assessed probabilistically and is found to be highly variable.

Water regime and fertilizer doses for rice crops with periodic watering in the Lower Volga region

This paper considers the results of studies on substantiating the optimal combination of controllable factors of growth and development of rice that provide grain yields of 4 and 5 t/ha under overhead irrigation. We determined the reaction rates of periodically watered rice to a different combination of water and nutrition modes of the soil, which make it possible to reduce the cost of irrigation water for rice cultivation by 2.4–6.9 times compared with the conventional technology and to bring the total water consumption of this culture to being biologically sound.

The relationship between cotton canopy temperature and yield, fibre quality and water-use efficiency

Crop canopy temperature (Tc) is associated with transpiration and Tc has been used in crop water stress detection. This study investigates the effect of surface drip and furrow irrigation regimes on cotton Tc. It outlines the relationship between Tc and lint yield, fibre quality and both agronomic (WUEa, kgha−1mm−1 total applied water) and leaf level water-use efficiency (WUEl, μmol[CO2] mmol[H2O]−1) in a high input, high yielding (>1800kgha−1) cotton system. Canopy temperature between flowering and crop maturity was monitored. Yield reductions occurred when Tc exceeded 28°C. Reductions in fibre length outside the ideal range (>28.6mm) occurred when Tc exceeded 31°C, while desirable micronaire (3.8–4.5) was observed at Tc between 25 and 32°C. Desirable fibre quality and peak lint yield can be realised if an irrigation scheduling protocol maintains average canopy temperatures below 28°C. However, maximum WUEa was observed at a higher average Tc (30°C) than peak lint yield (28°C), which would correspond to a predicted 23% reduction in lint yield from the peak (3030kgha−1). Therefore, the trade-off between peak yield and WUEa needs to be considered in conjunction with irrigation water costs and availability when scheduling irrigations based on canopy temperature.

Application of Rice Husk Biochar to Desalinate Irrigation Water

Abstract In recent years, use of carbon-based adsorbents has increased in pollution reduction from aqueous solutions. Biochar is a carbon-rich porous material, with low costs, and environmentally friendly, which is prepared by pyrolysis of biomass. In this study, potential of rice husk biochar to desalinate irrigation water with EC of 5, 15 and 25 dS/m was investigated. The effect of pyrolysis temperatures of 400 C  (RHB4), 600 C  (RHB6) and 800 C  (RHB8) on selected physicochemical characteristics and their desalination power was considered. The results showed that pyrolysis temperature has a significant effect on biochar properties. RHB6 with 301.1 mg g desalination capacity was more efficient than the other biochars. This adsorbent had maximum surface area (211 m g) and total pore volume (0.114 cm g). The results of this study could open new horizons to manage the agricultural wastes and simultaneously reduce the cost of irrigation water.

English

Awash basin is the only basin that operates with the concept of river basin management and irrigation water pricing in Ethiopia. The effectiveness and impacts of the current irrigation water pricing system in the basin has not been studied yet. Hence, the objective of this research is to evaluate effects of irrigation water pricing on scheme level water productivity in Awash River basin. Based on systematic selection criteria, 29 irrigation water users were selected from middle and upper Awash. Structured questionnaire and discussions have been used to generate the primary data. Scheme specific data such as area cultivated, amount of water diverted each year, water fee, service charge and operation and maintenance cost for primary irrigation canals of each legal water user in the basin for the last five consecutive production years (2005/2006-2009/2010) were collected from Awash Basin Authority. SPSS and CROPWAT were used to analyze the information gathered through questionnaires and irrigation water requirement respectively. Water productivity of cotton, sugarcane and onion was computed for total available water (excess rainfall + irrigation), irrigation water and water lost through crop evapotranspiration. The current irrigation water pricing in Awash basin seems to be low and does not encourage individual users in improving water productivity. Hence, it is resulted in low crop water productivity. Therefore, cost of irrigation water in Awash basin should have to be optimized with a well specified and revised pricing objective(s) if it has to influence the water productivity. Key words: Irrigation, irrigation water pricing, water productivity, Awash basin.

Farmers' Willingness to Pay for Improved Irrigation Water — A Case Study of Malaprabha Irrigation Project in Karnataka, India

In principle, the approach toward irrigation management in India has gradually shifted from a government-dominated, supply-side paradigm toward a user-preferred, demand-side paradigm. Yet, decisions regarding water allocation and irrigation charges do not adequately incorporate farmers' preferences and their willingness-to-pay (WTP) for improved irrigation. Since public investment on irrigation projects is sizeable and the opportunity cost of irrigation water is increasing, there exists a need to estimate the economic value of irrigation water in order to utilize it in an efficient manner. This paper presents results of a contingent valuation (CV) study conducted in a semi-arid region, namely, the Malaprabha Irrigation Project in Karnataka, India, which elicited farmers' preferences and their WTP value for improved irrigation. The results suggest that farmers predict a significant increase in agricultural benefits due to additional irrigation and they are willing to pay significantly higher than what they are currently paying to secure these benefits. It implies that improved irrigation increases not only the farmers' benefits but could potentially increase the government's revenue, resulting in a win–win outcome.

Measuring technical efficiency of potato production in Iran using robust data envelopment analysis

A non-parametric method of data envelopment analysis (DEA) was applied to analyze the technical and scale efficiency of potato production in 23 Iranian provinces. In many real applications, inputs and outputs may be imprecise. In the present study, a robust DEA (RDEA) optimization framework was used to concentrate on DEA with uncertain data. The method was based on six inputs (human labor rent, land rent, diesel and machinery rent, irrigation water cost, fertilizer cost, pesticide cost) and the single output of potato gross return. The proposed DEA for 23 Iranian potato-producing provinces reveals that the average technical efficiency is 90% and scale efficiency is 97%. This suggests that inefficient provinces can potentially reduce their overall costs for potato production. A Monte Carlo simulation was used to compute the conformity of the rankings from the RDEA model with reality to illustrate the importance of varying the level of efficiency for different levels of conservatism.

An Evaluation of the SRI on Increasing Yield, Water Productivity and Profitability; Experiences from TN-IAMWARM Project

The increasing dependence on groundwater for growing staple food crops like paddy causes lowering of water table and serious depletion of groundwater storage in many parts of India including Tamil Nadu, a southern Indian state. This study is based on field research conducted during the Kharif seasons in 2011-2013 in Villupuram district, Tamil Nadu, to evaluate the impact of TN-IAMWARM Project’s adoption of SRI on agronomic productivity and irrigation water use efficiency. The adoption of SRI method in paddy cultivation has resulted in increased by 20% in paddy yield and net income 44.50% over the conventional cultivation. This has been achieved with substantial reduction in irrigation water application (42.33%), labor input (17.46%) and seed cost (87.47%). The economic attractiveness of SRI cultivation is very high, giving farmers a strong incentive to accept water-saving techniques as a new norm for irrigated paddy production. Hence, the cultivation of Kharif paddy (which is a high water consuming crop) through SRI practices promises to be a significant alternative for not only increasing paddy productivity, but also for savings on irrigation water and energy costs in the resource-starved regions of India.

Irrigation Water Pricing in Iran: The Gap between Theory and Practice

Pricing policies play an important role in water demand management and its optimal allocation. Determining proper water price leads to optimal allocation of water especially in agricultural consumptions. Applying new subsidy targeting law in Iran which insists on pricing water based on its supply cost, will effects considerably on water resource management in agriculture sector. So, in this study, different Irrigation water pricing methods is investigated and proper irrigation water price is determined using survey data for 2010-2011 farming year in Golestan Province of Iran. At the first step using econometric approach, economic value of irrigation water in different agriculture crops is determined that shows demand side price for water. Then, supply cost of surface and ground water is calculated using accounting approach which shows supply side price for irrigation water. Finally, economic value and supply cost of irrigation water compared and different water pricing methods is evaluated. Results indicated that, weighted average of economic value and supply costs of irrigation water in Golestan province were 1795 and 1399 IRR per cubic meter, respectively. So, improvement of water demand and supply management could be achieved using price policies.

Implications of a shift in irrigation technology on resource use efficiency: A Syrian case

The absence of adequate land leveling coupled with the ill designed traditional furrow irrigation systems and the poor condition of drainage structures in most Syrian farms are leading to over-irrigation. A stochastic production frontier and inefficiency model has been estimated to measure the farm level inefficiency in irrigation water use. The results show that in Syria, the typical wheat farm is 28% less efficient in irrigation water use than the best farmer. It is also found that on average, these farms can achieve the current level of yield with 9% less irrigation water only by replacing the traditional surface canal irrigation schemes with sprinklers. This shift however results in only 2% improvement in a measure that combines both cost and technical efficiencies of irrigation water – a possible reason for 43% of the farms to continue using the traditional system despite government support for the purchase of sprinklers. Even among sprinkler users, there is 25% inefficiency in irrigation water use that needs to be curbed. These results suggest that farmer education and the introduction of water user charges that will increase the cost efficiency of sprinklers relative to the traditional methods may enhance water conservation through wider adoption and more efficient use of sprinklers.

Yield, physicochemical traits, antioxidant pattern, polyphenol oxidase activity and total visual quality of field‐grown processing tomato cv. Brigade as affected by water stress in Mediterranean climate

The 'processing tomato' is an important source of natural antioxidants whose concentration depends, along with other parameters, on water availability. In order to better understand the mechanisms that regulate the response to water stress, a study was carried out in a typically semi-arid Mediterranean environment to investigate the yield, chemical composition and visual quality of tomato cv. 'Brigade' field grown under no irrigation (V0) in comparison with those of the conventional fully irrigated crop (V100). The stressful conditions of V0 affected the total yield. Nevertheless, fruits exhibited an increase in firmness (+27%), total solids (+23%) and total soluble solids (+5%). The dynamic balance between the antioxidant pattern and polyphenol oxidase activity under water stress conditions resulted in fruits with increased antioxidant activity (+12%), due to a decline in enzyme activity (-48%) and a rise in vitamin C (+20%) and total phenolic (+13%) contents. It is possible to manage water stress by applying water-saving irrigation strategies in order to promote the quality and nutritional properties of tomatoes while also contributing to saving water. This is a relevant aspect in processing tomato cultivation in semi-arid environments, where both the cost and availability of irrigation water represent a rising problem in agricultural activities.

Assessment of the Draft Hydrological Basin Plan of the Guadalquivir River Basin (Spain)

This paper evaluates and discusses the draft Hydrological Basin Plan (HBP) for the Guadalquivir river basin and its related Programme of Measures (PoM). The HBP focuses on demand management using technical and economic measures, particularly through investment in water efficiency measures. In addition, it seeks to eliminate urban point source pollution. By 2015, a sustainable water resource demand is projected if the current area of irrigated land is not expanded and if the urban waste water treatment work is completed according to Directive 91/271/CEE. It is expected that costs of implementation will be high. The total investment of the PoM is estimated to be €978 per capita per year; this investment has an annual equivalent cost of €143 per capita per year. However, it is estimated that 67% of the total investment can be recovered with special impact in increase in the cost of irrigation water by 160% and the cost of urban water by 60%. Finally, this paper ends with a discussion on the most critical points likely to hinder the HBP being used effectively as a tool for sustainable water management.

Simulation of maize crop behavior under deficit irrigation using MOPECO model in a semi-arid environment

Through the experimental data of a three year maize field test, this paper shows the calibration (year 2003) and validation (years 2001 and 2002) processes for the simulation of FAO-700 maize crop (Dracma and Brasco hybrids) under deficit irrigation conditions in Castilla-La Mancha (Spain) using the MOPECO model. Key objectives of this research were: (1) determining the length of growth stages using the growing-degree-days (GDD) method; (2) an analysis of the effect of saline irrigation water on crop yield; and (3) a sensitivity analysis of the main factors affecting gross margin (i.e. irrigation water cost, harvest sale price, and uniformity of irrigation). Results show that MOPECO is suitable for simulating the yield versus total water (gross irrigation+effective rainfall) relationships under the climatic and soil conditions in this study (RMSE=1199kgha−1, relative error=7.7%, and similarity rate=0.94, between observed and simulated yields). GDD for the whole growth cycle is around 1802.8°C, while calibrated crop coefficient (Kc) and crop yield response (ky) values for the four growth stages proposed by FAO-56 are similar to those presented in the literature, which provides evidence that this methodology is appropriate for simulating the behavior of herbaceous crops such as maize under different scenarios of water supply. The electrical conductivity of the irrigation water in the area (0.85dSm−1) does not significantly affect the final yield of this crop (up to 4.7% higher without considering the effect of salinity) for the irrigation amount commonly applied in the area (around 650mm). Under the current harvest sale price scenario (0.15€kg−1), costs have greatly decreased the profitability of maize in the area, reaching 400€ha−1. Changing the management of the crop for deficit irrigation strategies may save water that can be used by other crops, thereby obtaining a higher gross margin on farms.

Economic Implications of Agricultural Water Use in Eastern India

Abstract The irrigation services are often state-subsidized in agrarian economies for the enhancement of agricultural productivity while they also target poverty alleviation. The agriculture-dependent states of India offer representative examples of undervalued irrigation services mainly sourced by canal networks. However, canal irrigation is nowadays lagging behind private groundwater initiatives but with significant costs which question the concept of low water pricing in agriculture. This paper assesses irrigation water costs in representative backward clusters of Bihar state in eastern India while the effects on different landholding groups are analysed. The results indicate that marginal landholders heavily rely on purchased water from unofficial markets while they pay the highest amount for irrigation. This is due to limited access in the canal network, possession of inefficient pumping systems and cultivation of crops with a high demand for water. However, acute policy reforms could drastically decrease water costs and improve agricultural productivity.

Wheat Production and Economics

Problem statement: The crop in the irrigated scheme has faced by mani fold problems contributed to low level of productivity and high c ost of production of wheat. The crop is commonly produced under pump irrigation from the River Nile. In River Nile State (RNS), wheat is grown under the irrigated sector, the State is considered as a suitable environment for producing this crop. The s tudy was conducted at Elzeidab irrigated scheme of RNS which is regarded as the oldest and biggest scheme belonging to the Ministry of Agriculture of RNS. Approach: Primary data was collected by using structured questionnaire for (70) randomly se lected respondents. More than one technique used to assess economic aspects of the crop. Cobb-Dougla s production function, descriptive statistics and partial budgeting have been employed to analyze the primary data. The study detected that the major socioeconomic characteristics of Elzeidab farmers w ere educated, the scheme tenants have had a cumulative experience in agriculture and average fa rm size is found to be small and the majority 50% of surveyed tenants in Elzeidab scheme were rented. The farming system of Elzeidab scheme is dominated by wheat production which counts to 25% of the farm land. The yield gab with the potential yield obtained by Agricultural Research C orporation (ARC) in the State amounts 66%. The microfinance market in Elzeidab scheme is not well developed. Water charges in the scheme were high. About 53% of the annual running expenses were allocated for fuel that made irrigation costs to be the highest single component of production costs of the crop, while irrigation water cost was considered as the most agricultural constraint, thi s item was found to be as 19% of the total cost of production as the highest percentage overall the va riable cost items. Results: The regression analysis revealed that the most factors affecting w heat productivity under the study were: the average of tenants' age, family labor, distance fro m home to field, hired labor, distance of farm to source of irrigation, number of irrigation, term of irrigation. Furthermore, the weakness of wheat production normally regards as a cost issue and lac k of awareness wheat grower especially about wheat technical package. Conclusion: The study concluded that wheat production contribut e significantly to farm sustainability and contribute to alleviation of malnutrition in the State. The actual production constraints restrict the sustaina bility of this important crop. The cooperation between international organizations and governmental institutions should tackle the hindrances of wheat production and achieve stability of wheat. Th ere is a great potential for improvement the yield of the crop and an intervention of the State is nee ded to ease having the inputs of production especially irrigation water inputs.

Price Sensitivity of Farmer Preferences for Irrigation Water–Pricing Method: Evidence from a Choice Model Analysis in Krishna River Basin, India

Water pricing is one of the water-demand management tools advocated to improve water allocation, water-use efficiency, equity, and sustainability. Often, however, little attention is paid to farmers' cooperation, which is necessary for introducing efficient irrigation water pricing. This paper studies the price sensitivity of the preferences for water-pricing methods in a broader water-rights system perspective in the Krishna River basin in India. We applied a choice experiment to investigate farmers' preferences for and the efficiency of a given pricing method based on willingness to pay estimates. The results indicate that farmers never prefer the existing area pricing system. At higher price levels, farmers would chose volumetric pricing followed by quota pricing, whereas at low price levels quota pricing is preferred. Price sensitivity of farmer preferences for volumetric pricing is high. Since water prices are expected to rise in the future as Indian water policies intend to eventually recover the full costs of irrigation water, volumetric-based pricing methods will probably be the most acceptable solution from the farmers' perspective. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)WR.1943-5452.0000103. © 2011 American Society of Civil Engineers.

Have diesel price hikes actually led to farmer distress in India?

The current study shows that the recent diesel price hike had an insignificant impact on irrigation costs incurred by diesel well owners in eastern India. Further, analysis of the farming enterprises of diesel well owners and water buyers from both diesel and electric wells confronted with a differential cost of irrigation water showed that farmers would be able to cope with a very high rise in irrigation costs through irrigation efficiency improvements and allocating more area to crops that give higher returns per unit of land and water. By doing this, they are able to maintain the farm returns.