Irreversible Capacity Research Articles

Boosting the initial coulombic efficiency for SiO anodes through component controlling and microcrystalline size limiting regulated by carbon layer

Silicon-based anode materials are attracting considerable attention due to their high specific capacity for further improving the energy density of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). Among them, silicon monoxide (SiO) has a good balance between high specific capacity and cycling lifespan, which is increasingly valuable in the market of lithium-ion batteries. However, its poor initial coulombic efficiency (ICE) severely impedes the commercialization of SiO. Although prelithiation and surface carbon coating are considered effective methods to reduce irreversible consumption during the initial lithiation process, the synergistic relationship between prelithiation and carbon coating has not yet been confirmed. Herein, we used LiH as solid-phase prelithiation reagent and acetylene as carbon source for carbon coating to improve the ICE as well as cyclic stability of SiO anode. Results show that the process sequence of pre-lithiation and carbon coating has a significant impact on regulating the internal lithium silicate components and the microcrystalline size of silicon and lithium silicates. A prioritizing carbon layer coating subsequent to prelithiation can achieve physical barrier effect, effectively regulating the prelithiation reaction process to refine the internal silicon and lithium silicate crystal material, and avoiding the formation of lithium-poor Li2Si2O5 phase. The obtained SOC-P sample exhibits a superior ICE of 88.1 % and a stable irreversible capacity of 842.9 mAh/g after 200 cycles. This work provides practical reference idea for solving the low initial efficiency issue of SiO anode material.

Perspective on High-Stability Single-Crystal Li-Rich Cathode Materials for Li-Ion Batteries.

Benefiting from anionic and cationic redox reactions, Li-rich materials have been regarded as next-generation cathodes to overcome the bottleneck of energy density. However, they always suffer from cracking of polycrystalline (PC) secondary particles and lattice oxygen release, resulting in severe structural deterioration and capacity decay upon cycling. Single-crystal (SC) design has been proven as an effective strategy to relieve these issues in traditional Li-rich cathodes with PC morphology. Herein, we first reviewed the main synthesis routes of SC Li-rich materials including solid-state reaction, molten salt-assisted, and hydrothermal/solvothermal methods, in which the differences in grain morphology, electrochemical behaviors, and other properties induced by various routes were analyzed and discussed. Furthermore, the distinct characteristics were compared between SC and PC cathodes from the aspects of irreversible capacity, structural stability, capacity/voltage degradation, and gas release. Besides, recent advances in layered SC Li-rich oxide cathodes were summarized in detail, where the unique structural designs and modification strategies could greatly promote their structural/electrochemical stability. At last, challenges and perspectives for the emerging SC Li-rich cathodes were proposed, which provided an exceptional opportunity to achieve high-energy-density and high-stability Li-ion/metal batteries.

Deciphering fundamental mechanism of different-type diluents on manipulating interfacial chemistry toward lithium metal anode

The growth of dendrites on lithium metal anode is troublesome because it induces irreversible capacity loss and safety hazards. Formulating localized high-concentration electrolytes (LHCEs) is an alternative solution to satisfy these challenges. However, the role of diluents in tailoring interfacial chemistry remains to be explicated. Herein, we decipher the direct relationship between different-type diluents and Li-coordinated solvation at the molecular scale. Compare to hydrofluoroethers (HFE), the “active” difluoro ethylene carbonate (DFEC) delivers a pronounced interaction with Li+ and 1, 2-dimethoxyethane (DME) molecule, resulting in a compressed but more accumulated aggregates (AGGs) solvation shell, assisting in the expected chemical nature of SEI with defluorination of DFEC. Consequently, DFEC-based LHCEs (D-LHCEs) realize a record-long lifespan over 3000 h with dendrite-free at 1 mA cm−2 and outstanding dendrite tolerance even under 3 mA cm−2 in symmetric cells. The assembled full cells with D-LHCEs outperform a superior capacity retention of ∼86.83 % with average CE of ∼99.42 % after 500 cycles at 0.5C and the remarkable cycling performance even under harsh conditions (including pouch cells or with controlled N/P of 1.8) in 4.45 V-level Li||LiCoO2 cells. This work highlights the decisive role of diluents in pursuing high-efficiency electrolytes for high-energy Li metal batteries.

Pre‐Lithiation Technology for Rechargeable Lithium‐Ion Batteries: Principles, Applications, and Perspectives

AbstractLithium‐ion batteries (LIBs) have been widely used as a new energy storage system with high energy density and long cycle life. However, the solid electrolyte interface (SEI) formed on the surface of anode consumes excess active lithium during the initial cycle, resulting in an initial irreversible capacity loss (ICL) and reducing the overall electrochemical performance. To solve the critical issue, pre‐lithiation technology has been accepted as one of the most promising strategies. Due to the pre‐lithiated treatment provides additional active lithium to compensate for the ICL and effectively improves initial Coulombic efficiency (ICE), leading to raising the working voltage, increasing the Li+ concentration, as well as improving the energy density and cycle stability of LIBs. In this overview, the causes of ICL in LIBs are analyzed from different perspectives, and various pre‐lithiation strategies are systematically classified and summarized. Finally, some current problems and development prospects in this field are summarized, with prospects for realizing industrialized technologies.

Overcoming low initial coulombic efficiencies of Si anodes through prelithiation in all-solid-state batteries

All-solid-state batteries using Si as the anode have shown promising performance without continual solid-electrolyte interface (SEI) growth. However, the first cycle irreversible capacity loss yields low initial Coulombic efficiency (ICE) of Si, limiting the energy density. To address this, we adopt a prelithiation strategy to increase ICE and conductivity of all-solid-state Si cells. A significant increase in ICE is observed for Li1Si anode paired with a lithium cobalt oxide (LCO) cathode. Additionally, a comparison with lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NCM) reveals that performance improvements with Si prelithiation is only applicable for full cells dominated by high anode irreversibility. With this prelithiation strategy, 15% improvement in capacity retention is achieved after 1000 cycles compared to a pure Si. With Li1Si, a high areal capacity of up to 10 mAh cm–2 is attained using a dry-processed LCO cathode film, suggesting that the prelithiation method may be suitable for high-loading next-generation all-solid-state batteries.

Oxygen Reaction of Nonlayered Tetrahedral KFeO2 Positive Electrode for Potassium-Ion Battery Using an FSA-based Ionic Liquid Electrolyte

K-ion batteries (KIBs) that use ionic liquid (IL) electrolytes are promising candidates for post-Li-ion batteries because of the abundance of potassium resources and safety of ILs. We successfully synthesized stoichiometric KFeO2 using a solid-state method and evaluated its charge–discharge performance as a KIB positive electrode material, with an amide-based IL electrolyte at 298 K. Transmission electron microscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, synchrotron soft X-ray absorption spectroscopy, and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy data showed that the bulk redox and surface oxidation of oxygen, rather than those of iron, contribute to the reversible and irreversible capacities, respectively. Capacity decay occurred upon repeated cycling, owing to the surface irreversible oxidation of oxygen ions to form O2 and K1−x FeO2−x/2, which blocks the pathways of K+ transfer to KFeO2 particles. This study provides a vital platform for constructing novel KIBs and elucidates the important role of oxygen in KFeO2 positive electrode.

Systematic Study of the Effect of Cycle Number and Crystal Structure on Si Anodes

AbstractThis paper shows that the number of cycles and the crystal structure play an important role in the capacity and cycling ability of lithium‐ion batteries. However, the detailed dynamics and continuity of the capacity decay mechanism caused by the number of cycles and crystal structure need to be further understood at the nanoscale. Molecular dynamics simulation was used to examine the microstructure development and deformation behavior of the Si anode in an electric field. The results show that the increase of the number of cycles leads to a large expansion of the volume of the Si electrode, which further leads to the loss of capacity and the decrease of cycle capacity, as well as the decrease of structural stability. The formation of Si crystal structure from diamond structure to amorphous depends on the depth of lithiation and desulfurization. Due to the presence of a large number of nanoscale voids, the Si anode has undergone volume expansion. The transformation associated with nanogap nucleation caused by the involuntary diffusion process is driven by more cycles, resulting in irreversible capacity loss of lithium‐ion batteries. The analysis model shows that the stress caused by diffusion is not only related to the position of the Si anode, but also to the cycle time.

Unprotected Organic Cations─The Dilemma of Highly Li-Concentrated Ionic Liquid Electrolytes.

Highly Li-concentrated electrolytes have been widely studied to harness their uniquely varying bulk and interface properties that arise from their distinctive physicochemical properties and coordination structures. Similar strategies have been applied in the realm of ionic liquid electrolytes to exploit their improved functionalities. Despite these prospects, the impact of organic cation behavior on interfacial processes remains largely underexplored compared to the widely studied anion behavior. The present study demonstrates that the weakened interactions between cations and anions engender "unprotected" organic cations in highly Li-concentrated ionic liquid electrolytes, leading to the decomposition of electrolytes during the initial charge. This decomposition behavior is manifested by the substantial irreversible capacities and inferior initial Coulombic efficiencies observed during the initial charging of graphite negative electrodes, resulting in considerable electrolyte consumption and diminished energy densities in full-cell configurations. The innate cation behavior is ascertained by examining the coordination environment of ionic liquid electrolytes with varied Li concentrations, where intricate ionic interactions between organic cations and anions are unveiled. In addition, anionic species with high Lewis basicity were introduced to reinforce the ionic interactions involving organic cations and improve the initial Coulombic efficiency. This study verifies the role of unprotected organic cations while highlighting the significance of the coordination environment in the performance of ionic liquid electrolytes.

Functional AlF3 modification over 5 V spinel LiCoMnO4 cathode for Li-ion batteries

We report the improved electrochemical activity of the 5 V LiCoMnO4 (LCMO) cathode with the functionalization of AlF3 coating. LCMO@AlF3 is prepared by adopting the co-precipitation technique followed by a wet coating by altering the concentration of AlF3 by 1–3 wt.%. LCMO@AlF3 exhibits improvement in the electrochemical performance compared to pristine LCMO. In addition, LCMO@AlF3 exhibits superior electrochemical performance with specific capacities of 107, 102, and 95 mAh g−1 and retentions of 68, 77, and 74% after 100 cycles for 1, 2, and 3 wt.% AlF3 coating. However, pristine LCMO shows a specific capacity of 105 mAh g−1 with a retention of 48% after 100 cycles. Also, LCMO@AlF3 exhibits a decrement in the irreversible capacity loss (ICL) compared to pristine LCMO, which enhances the coulombic efficiency of the former compared to the latter. Further, the AlF3 coating of 2 and 3 wt.% has been optimized to exhibit excellent electrochemical performance. The diffusion coefficients are calculated from cyclic voltammetric and electrochemical impedance spectroscopic techniques and are in the order of ∼10−12 cm2 s−1. Further, in-operando and in-situ impedance studies are conducted to authenticate the electrochemical activity observed in half-cell studies. In full-cell assembly with Li4Ti5O12 (LTO) anode, the LCMO@AlF3: 2–3 wt.% exhibits better electrochemical performance compared to its bare configuration. In addition, the electrochemical activity at various temperature (−10 to 25 °C) conditions is performed and reported.

Application of Na2CO3 as a Sacrificial Electrode Additive in Na‐ion Batteries to Compensate for the Sodium Deficiency in Na2/3[Fe1/2Mn1/2]O2

AbstractOwing to their high discharge capacities, P2‐type transition metal layered oxides have attracted attention for use as positive electrode materials in Na‐ion batteries. However, owing to the Na‐deficient compositions of these oxides, additional Na+ must be supplied using a Na‐metal negative electrode to attain a high capacity in a half‐cell configuration. In this study, solid Na2CO3 powder was introduced into the P2−Na2/3Fe1/2Mn1/2O2 composite positive electrode as a sacrificial salt to compensate for the Na deficiency. Na+ was supplied through the electrochemical oxidative decomposition of Na2CO3 during the initial charging process; the decomposition mechanism responsible for this process was investigated in detail. Online electrochemical mass spectrometry confirmed that Na2CO3 was oxidatively decomposed in combination with the decomposition of the ethylene carbonate electrolyte. This reaction produced CO2, wherein the carbon source was derived from both Na2CO3 and the electrolyte. Consequently, Na+ supplementation improved the reversible capacity of the Na‐ion full cell. This study offers practical insights and a mechanistic understanding of the pre‐doping technique for Na‐free negative electrodes. This approach also compensates for the irreversible reductive capacity in a process that can be easily applied to practical sodium‐ and lithium‐ion batteries and capacitors.

New exploration of water-soluble lithium polyacrylate/xanthan gum composite binder for Li-rich Mn-based cathode materials

Li-rich Mn-based oxides are considered promising cathode materials of Li-ion batteries with high specific capacity and operating voltage. However, Li-rich materials suffer from a high initial irreversible capacity loss and severe voltage attenuation during cycling. In this work, lithium polyacrylate (LiPAA) was crosslinked with xanthan gum (XG) to form a water-soluble binder for Li[Li0.2Co0.13Ni0.13Mn0.54]O2 electrode. The capacity retention was 78.3 % after 100 cycles at 0.2 C. LiPAA provided additional Li+ ions during cycling, while XG firmly bound to the surface of the active particles. Cost-effective binders provide a facile mean to improve the electrochemical performance of Li-rich cathode materials.

Unveiling the Microscopic Origin of Irreversible Capacity Loss of Hard Carbon for Sodium‐Ion Batteries

AbstractThe primary bottleneck hindering the application of hard carbon in sodium‐ion batteries (SIBs) anodes lies in its inadequate initial Coulombic efficiency (ICE). Unclear causes of capacity loss at the microscopic level restrict the improvement of hard carbon anodes. Here, two pivotal stages that influence the structure and composition of hard carbon, namely synthesis, and storage are evaluated; subsequently identifying crucial determinants contributing to irreversible capacity loss. The results suggest that undergrown carbon layers allowing the intrusion of solvent molecules into the interior of the hard carbon is a key factor during the synthesis stage, while the gradual formation of oxygen‐containing functional groups on the surface of the hard carbon is another factor leading to irreversible loss of capacity during storage stage. This research microscopically clarifies the irreversible capacity loss mechanism on hard carbon and provides guidelines for designing and applying high ICE hard carbon for SIBs.

Modification Strategies of High-Energy Li-Rich Mn-Based Cathodes for Li-Ion Batteries: A Review.

Li-rich manganese-based oxide (LRMO) cathode materials are considered to be one of the most promising candidates for next-generation lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) because of their high specific capacity (250 mAh g-1) and low cost. However, the inevitable irreversible structural transformation during cycling leads to large irreversible capacity loss, poor rate performance, energy decay, voltage decay, etc. Based on the recent research into LRMO for LIBs, this review highlights the research progress of LRMO in terms of crystal structure, charging/discharging mechanism investigations, and the prospects of the solution of current key problems. Meanwhile, this review summarizes the specific modification strategies and their merits and demerits, i.e., surface coating, elemental doping, micro/nano structural design, introduction of high entropy, etc. Further, the future development trend and business prospect of LRMO are presented and discussed, which may inspire researchers to create more opportunities and new ideas for the future development of LRMO for LIBs with high energy density and an extended lifespan.

Bacterial cellulose-derived carbon as a self-supported and flexible anode for stable-performance lithium-ion batteries

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have been a breakthrough in the arena of energy storage devices since their inception. Earlier the slurry-coated electrodes are used for the development of LIBs. However, the slurry-coated electrode includes electrochemically inactive species (such as current collector, binder, and carbon additive) which decreases the energy density of the device. Therefore, the research community extensively explores self-supported and flexible electrodes for various electrochemical devices because of their lower electrochemical inactive species. This work reports the usage of sustainable bacterial cellulose as a precursor to derive a self-supported anode for stable lithium-ion batteries. Detailed electrochemical and physicochemical properties were evaluated to understand the efficacy of the self-supported anode. Benefitting from the porous morphology, interconnected nanofibrous assembly, and efficient graphitic domain in carbonized bacterial cellulose the lithium-ion battery delivers an impressive electrochemical performance. Notably, lithium-ion cells with the anode delivered a capacity of 548 mAh/g at 0.05 A/g with shallow irreversible capacity loss (coulombic efficiency of the first cycle is 90%). The cell maintains a capacity of 198 mAh/g at an extremely high current of 2 A/g and retains 82 % of capacity after 1000 cycles at 0.5 A/g. This work paves the way to create a self-supported and flexible electrode with a simple and scalable approach.

Utilizing High-Capacity Spinel-Structured High-Entropy Oxide (CrMnFeCoCu)3O4 as a Graphite Alternative in Lithium-Ion Batteries

In the realm of advanced anode materials for lithium-ion batteries, this study explores the electrochemical performance of a high-entropy oxide (HEO) with a unique spinel structure. The equiatomic composition of CrMnFeCoCu was synthesized and subjected to a comprehensive materials characterization process, including X-ray diffraction and microscopy techniques. The multicomponent alloy exhibited a multiphase structure, comprising two face-centered cubic (FCC) phases and an oxide phase. Upon oxidation, the material transformed into a spinel oxide with a minor presence of CuO. The resulting high-entropy oxide demonstrated excellent electrochemical behavior when utilized as an anode material. Cyclic voltammetry revealed distinctive reduction peaks attributed to cation reduction and solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) layer formation, while subsequent cycles showcased high reversibility. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy indicated a decrease in charge transfer resistance during cycling, emphasizing the remarkable electrochemical performance. Galvanostatic charge/discharge tests displayed characteristic voltage profiles, with an initial irreversible capacity attributed to SEI layer formation. The HEO exhibited promising rate capability, surpassing commercial graphite at higher current densities. The battery achieved 80% (275 mAh g−1) of its initial stable capacity at a current density of 500 mA g−1 by the 312th cycle. Post-mortem analysis revealed structural amorphization during cycling, contributing to the observed electrochemical behavior. This research highlights the potential of HEOs as advanced anode materials for lithium-ion batteries, combining unique structural features with favorable electrochemical properties.

Interfacial structure changes between amorphous silicon anode/liquid electrolyte using a highly dense and flat model electrode

AbstractChanges in the interfacial structures of the amorphous silicon (a-Si) anode/organic electrolyte interfaces in lithium-ion batteries were investigated using highly dense a-Si films fabricated by cathodic arc plasma deposition as a model electrode. Raman spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and X-ray reflectivity revealed that the Si films were grown in an amorphous state with an atomically flat surface. The a-Si films exhibited lithium alloying and de-alloying reactions, with a large irreversible capacity during the first cycle. The irreversible capacity was derived from the formation of a solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) along with an incompletely de-alloyed Li-Si phase, as confirmed by ex situ TEM and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy observations. The discharge and charge capacities of the Si films gradually decreased in the subsequent cycles, despite the fact that no further SEI formation or cracking of the Si layer occurred. Scanning electron microscopy observations combined with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy revealed the miniaturization of the a-Si film in the surface region to generate domains measuring less than a few hundred nanometers. These results suggest that delamination and miniaturization of the a-Si nanodomains from the electrode surface are partly responsible for degradation of the a-Si anode.

Synergetic impact of dual substitution on anionic–Cationic activity of P2-type sodium manganese oxide

P2-type sodium-deficient cathodes with the local Na–O–A configuration (A=Li, Mg, Zn, and vacancy) have attracted great interest due to their high capacity, stemming from the additional contribution of the oxygen-redox chemistry. However, such materials suffer from irreversible oxygen redox, oxygen release, structural distortion, and capacity fading. Herein, we introduce a dual-doping Li/Cu strategy to improve the properties of P2-NaxMnO2 cathode material. The unique sodium-storage mechanism in P2-Na0.75[Li0.15Cu0.15Mn0.7]O2 is verified using operando X-ray diffraction (o-XRD), X-ray absorption, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and magnetic susceptibility methods. O-XRD and 7Li solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance analysis reveal that the P2 phase is maintained within charge and discharge; however, at high voltage, a small portion of O-type stacking faults are emerged due to the migration of Li to octahedral Na sites. Furthermore, various spectroscopy and magnetometry techniques combined with density functional theory calculation demonstrate the stable activity of cationic Cu2+/Cu3+ and Mn3+/Mn4+ and anionic O2−/(O2)n− redox processes. This work highlights the efficacy of Li and Cu doping in P2-type layered materials and the contribution of oxygen redox to additional capacity at high voltages, suggesting the potential for future development of cathode materials for Na-ion batteries with oxygen redox.

Efficient Surface Passivation of Ti-Based Layered Materials by a Nonfluorine Branched Copolymer for Durable and High-Power Sodium-Ion Batteries.

There is a crucial need for low-cost energy storage technology based on abundant sodium ions to realize sustainable development with renewable energy resources. Poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) is applied as a binder in sodium-ion batteries (SIBs). Nevertheless, PVDF is also known to suffer from a larger irreversible capacity, especially when PVDF is used as the binder of negative electrode materials. In this research, a poly(acrylonitrile)-grafted poly(vinyl alcohol) copolymer (PVA-g-PAN) is tested as a binder with Ti-based layered oxides as potential negative electrode materials for SIBs. The chemical stability tests of PVDF and PVA-g-PAN contacted with metallic sodium have been conducted, which reveals that PVDF experiences a defluorination process, while PVA-g-PAN demonstrates excellent chemical stability. Composite electrodes with PVA-g-PAN demonstrate superior electrochemical performances when compared with the PVDF binder, allowing improvement for initial CE, higher rate capability, and long cyclability over 1500 cycles. Detailed characterization of electrodes via soft X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and field emission scanning electron microscopy demonstrates that the PVA-g-PAN branched structure allows a more uniform distribution of acetylene black with higher coatability, unlocking enhanced rate performances and efficient passivation of Ti-based oxides without the excessive electrolyte decomposition. These findings open a new way to design practical and durable sodium-ion batteries with a high-power density.

Bottom-preferred stripping mechanism towards quantified inactive metallic Zn0-dominant zinc loss in rechargeable zinc metal battery

Electrically isolated metallic Zn (Zn0) and electrochemically side reaction (ECSR), causes irreversible anode capacity loss and limited cycle life in zinc metal battery. However, the quantitative distinguishment between inactive metallic Zn0 and ECSR, their formation mechanism and correlation with anode cycling reversibility have never been disclosed, limiting further anode modification design. Here, we develop an acid-assisted continuous titration-collection-gas chromatography technique (AAC-TCGC) that accurately quantify the amount of inactive Zn0 and ECSR in anode, and discover that inactive Zn0 accounts for the majority of Zn loss, rather than the commonly-assumed electrochemically side reaction-derived ECSR-dominant Zn anode capacity loss. Detailed component of SEI (Solid Electrolyte Interface Layer) compound is also characterized, illustrating a solvent-derived zinc oxide/hydroxide-dominant SEI that facilitates vertical/inclined thin-plate Zn deposition, but salt-derived ZnF2-dominant SEI that favors horizontal platelet-shaped Zn(002) deposition. Simulation results reveal a new electric resistance-derived, bottom-preferred Zn stripping mechanism that leads to abundant inactive Zn0 formation in vertical thin-plate Zn deposition structure, but few inactive Zn0 in dumpy platelet-shaped Zn structure. Our study provides new theories and strategies on the distinguishment, formation mechanism and structure-performance relationship of inactive Zn, important for building more efficient Zn metal battery.

Rich-Carbonyl Carbon Catalysis Facilitating the Li2CO3 Decomposition for Cathode Lithium Compensation Agent.

The active lithium loss of lithium-ion batteries can be well addressed by adding a cathode lithium compensation agent. Due to the poor conductivity and electrochemical activity, lithium carbonate (Li2CO3) is not considered as a candidate. Herein, an effective cathode lithium compensation agent, the recrystallized Li2CO3 combined with large specific surface area disordered porous carbon (R-LCO@SPC) is prepared. The screened SPC makes it easier for nano-sized Li2CO3 to adsorb and decompose on carbon substrate, meantime, exposing plenty of catalytic active sites of C═O, which can significantly improve the electrochemical activity and conductivity of Li2CO3, thus greatly reducing the decomposition potential of Li2CO3 (4.0V) and releasing high irreversible capacity (580mAhg-1) compared to the unmodified Li2CO3 (nearly no capacity above 4.6V). Meantime, the Li2CO3 can disappear completely without any by-product after the initial cycle accompanied by partially dissolved in electrolyte, optimizing the composition of SEI. The resultant lithium compensation agent applied to LMFP//graphite full cell exhibits a 19.1% increase in energy density, enhancing the rate and cycling performance, demonstrating great practical applications potential in high energy density lithium-ion batteries.