Iron Pillars Research Articles

Chemistry of ancient materials of iron in India

India is acclaimed for its rich heritage of iron making at least since the protohistoric era. The ancient artisans were able to create iron artefacts possessing outstanding characteristics, which demonstrates the level of expertise they had attained in the field of chemistry and metallurgy. Numerous iron artefacts including iron pillar in Delhi, iron pillar in Dhar, iron beams at Sun temple in Konark, bear eloquent testimony to this. Therefore, it is fascinating to study the chemistry involved in the preparation and properties of these iron-based ancient materials. Several scholars have contributed to the study of iron artefacts discovered from various sites across India which belong to different periods, regions and dynasties. Across the scholarly spectrum, special attention has been paid to study the chemistry involved in the marvelous characteristics like super corrosion resistance of iron pillars, cannons, etc.This review, therefore, presents the recent insights into iron-based materials in ancient India.Our objective is to highlight (1) a brief historical background, (2) chemical composition, (3) preparation of the material, (4) surface microstructure and (5) the mechanism behind the special features, of iron artefacts. Analysis of antiquarian remains with the help of different characterization techniques like X-ray diffraction (XRD), Proton induced X-ray emission, Energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Mössbauer spectroscopy, High Resolution Transmission Electron Microscopy (HRTEM), micro particles induced X-ray emission (μPIXE), etc. have been focused upon. The ancient iron making process used for producing high quality wootz steel has been discussed too. A detailed analysis of the rust-free iron pillar of Delhi has been presented. In particular, the iron pillar at Dhar, Adi-Mookambika temple, Kodachadri, and iron beams at Sun Temple, Konark, Damascus swords made of wootz steel, cannon at Thanjavur and iron specimens of Gupta period at Eran (Madhya Pradesh) are the artefacts studied to understand the characteristics of iron objects produced in India during ancient times. This study can support the future making of metallic monuments and artefacts with outstanding characteristics. This review is expected to appeal across the disciplines, including but not limited to, materials science, chemistry, physics, metallurgy, chemical engineering and archaeology.

Тренди світового ринку чавуну та чавунних виливків в першій чверті XXI століття

The analysis of the world market of iron and iron castings in 2002-2022 is presented. During the period from 2002 to 2022, the production of iron in the world grew at an average annual rate from 5.7 to 1.3%. An increase in the domestic consumption of iron by the producing countries was noted. The main consumers of cast iron are steel and cast iron production. The volumes of production, export, import, and consumption of cast iron compared to world GDP in 2002, 2012, and 2022 are shown. The top ten producers of cast iron in 2018 and 2022 are presented. Ukraine occupies the 12th position. A comparison of the dynamics of the production of iron and cast iron shows that during 2002-2021, the average annual growth rate of production of cast iron in the world was 4.0%, and that of cast iron was 2.0%. The ratings of the world manufacturers of iron castings in 2018 and 2021 were considered. The production of iron castings in the world is characterized by both increasing (2002-2011) and stable production (2012-2021). Today, cast iron remains the most widely used casting material. The main reasons for the long-lasting dominance of cast iron in a wide range of products are related to its mechanical and physical properties and its competitive price. If all ferrous alloys in the global foundry production make up more than 80%, then we are living in the Iron Age. The review provides two examples from the "cast iron world" that describe the development of centrifugal casting of high-strength cast iron pillars with lengths from 9 to 30 m and with a casting cycle time of up to 12 minutes for a base pillar. Such utility poles weigh less than wooden poles and are much lighter than concrete poles, have high fire resistance, withstand significant wind loads and have a service life of more than 75 years, surpassing both steel and wood. It was also noted that cast iron is actively used for the production of household utensils, with a projected increase in its output. Keywords: market, cast iron, cast iron castings, trends, production.

Technical Problems Connected with the Adaptation into a Loft of a Post-industrial Building. Case Study

Adaptation of post-industrial facilities for modern residential buildings improves the results and aesthetics of urban spaces with a full respect for the protection of cultural heritage. Adaptation of post-industrial of the historic building requires a series of the preliminary research facility. The article presents the results of the diagnosis of the technical condition preceding the adaptation of the former factory to lofts in Zielona Góra. The building at Fabryczna 14 in Zielona Góra was built in 1913 and for over 60 years, it was a weaving mill in a textile factory complex. In the 70s of the 20th century, the building was adapted to the office of the “POLON” Nuclear Apparatus, in the first years of the twenty-first century, the building served as a commercial facility and storage. The building is 4-storey, made of solid brick, covered with a desktop roof, with a 5-storey corner tower from the south. The building’s facades are made of non-plastered bricks, have numerous profiling - pilaster strips, cornices, bands, panels. From the north, in the 70s of the 20th century, a part containing the reinforced concrete staircase was added. The interior of the building is three-tract, the supporting structure is made of longitudinal brick external walls and parallel steel beams based on cast iron pillars. The main assumptions of the adaptation to lofts primarily assumed changes in the interior of the building. Flats with an area of 60 to 150 square meters were designed, for this purpose, additional transverse walls were made. The brick façade remained, the attachment for the staircase and elevator was changed. At this point, the architect used modern trends related to modern technologies and finishing materials. The projection housing the new elevator and staircase was made of a steel structure with a reflex glass cladding. Modern solutions have been integrated into the brick architecture of the historic building. The political and social changes of the 1990s meant that many industrial facilities, often with a rich history, were out of use. A prolonged break in the use of buildings often causes irreversible degradation of their construction. This is mainly due to the neglect of basic maintenance principles.

Pillared cloisite 15A as an enhancement filler in polysulfone mixed matrix membranes for CO2/N2 and O2/N2 gas separation

The Cloisite 15A (C‒15A), an organically modified montmorillonite clay, was further modified with iron (Fe) pillars. Mixed matrix membranes (MMMs) were fabricated by incorporating Fe pillared Cloisite 15A (P–C15A) at different loading percentage of 0.1–1.5 wt% within the polysulfone (PSf) matrix. Fabricated membranes were characterized using thermal studies (TGA and DSC) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The morphological studies of fabricated MMMs confirmed that the P–C15A was well embedded through the PSf matrix. To investigate the effect of P–C15A incorporation, MMMs were tested for their gas permeation behavior using pure CO2, N2, and O2 gases. The gas permeation of MMMs was increased with the increase in loading percentage of P–C15A, whereas the gas selectivity was maintained at par to that of neat PSf membrane until it diminished at 1.5 wt% percentage of P–C15A causing mineral agglomeration. PSf/P–C15A (1 wt%) MMMs exhibited 232% and 274% increase in CO2 and O2 gas permeability respectively, while showing minimal variation in the selectivity of O2/N2 and CO2/N2 compared to that of neat PSf membrane. Furthermore, the gas separation performance of neat and P–C15A incorporated MMMs were compared with the Robeson upper bound. The PSf/P–C15A (1 wt%) MMM shown to have CO2 permeability of 18.01 barrer with the CO2/N2 and O2/N2 gas pair selectivities of 4.95 and 18.34 respectively, which depicted closeness towards the Robeson upper bound.

Template-assisted fabrication of tunable aspect ratio, biocompatible iron oxide pillar arrays

The extensive use of iron oxide nanomaterials in biomedical applications has prompted the development of a novel substrate for evaluating cell behaviour. This study examines the fabrication of tuneable length iron oxide pillar arrays using the porous nanochannels of anodic aluminium oxide membranes, and evaluates the biocompatibility of the substrate. The electroformed iron pillars were found to conform to the template channels with slightly larger iron oxide pillar diameters, due to the presence of an oxide shell. The biocompatibility was then confirmed with WST-1 proliferation and viability assay of cultured KT98 murine neural/progenitor stem cells on the surface of the pillar array; with no significant difference observed between viable cells after seven days of culture on iron oxide pillars, flat iron oxide, and tissue culture polystyrene. The physical properties of the pillar arrays were linked to the adhesion and spreading of the cells, and found that cells cultured on the pillar arrays had reduced spreading in comparison to tissue culture polystyrene control. In addition, it was found that protein expression was unaffected by culture on iron oxide substrates. The results of this study indicate that iron oxide pillar arrays are suitable to extended cell studies.

Zoo agent's measure in applying the five freedoms principles for animal welfare.

Background:Animal welfare should be prioritized not only for the animal’s life sustainability but also for supporting the sustainability of living organism’s life on the earth. However, Indonesian people have not understood it yet, thereby still treating animals arbitrarily and not appreciating either domesticated or wild animals.Aim:This research aimed to analyze the zoo agent’s action in applying the five freedoms principle for animal welfare in Taman Satwa Taru Jurug (thereafter called TSTJ) or Surakarta Zoo and Gembira Loka Zoo (GLZ) of Yogyakarta Indonesia using Giddens structuration theory.Materials and Methods:The informants in this comparative study with explorative were organizers, visitors, and stakeholders of zoos selected using purposive sampling technique. The informants consisted of 19 persons: 8 from TSTJ (Code T) and 10 from GLZ (Code G) and representatives from Natural Resource Conservation Center of Central Java (Code B). Data were collected through observation, in-depth interview, and Focus Group Discussion and Documentation. Data were analyzed using an interactive model of analysis consisting of three components: Data reduction, data display, and conclusion drawing. Data validation was carried out using method and data source triangulations.Results:Food, nutrition, and nutrition level have been given consistent with the animals’ habit and natural behavior. Animal keepers always maintain their self-cleanliness. GLZ has provided cages according to the technical instruction of constructing ideal cages, but the cages in TSTJ are worrying as they are not consistent with standard, rusty, and damaged, and animals have no partner. Some animals in GLZ are often sick, whereas some animals in TSTJ are dead due to poor maintenance. The iron pillars of cages restrict animal behavior in TSTJ so that they have not had freedom to behave normally yet, whereas, in GLZ, they can move freely in original habitat. The animals in the two zoos have not been free from disruption, stress, and pressure due to the passing over vehicles.Conclusion:There should be strategic communication, information, and education, community development, and law enforcement for the animal welfare.

Low temperature in-situ micro-compression testing of iron pillars

An in-situ nanomechanical cooling system has been developed to study the temperature dependency of local mechanical properties and slip behavior of bcc α-Fe. Uniaxial compression tests with Focused Ion Beam (FIB) fabricated pillars with a diameter of 1µm, were performed in the single slip orientations 2¯35 and 1¯49 at room temperature and 198K. The testing was conducted inside a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) equipped with a nanoindenter. Slip trace analyses revealed occurrence of slip in the {112}<111> family of slip systems for 2¯35 pillars at both room temperature and 198K while the predominantly slip systems governing the deformation on 1¯49 pillars were {110}<111> for both test temperatures. The stress-strain response showed an increased strength with decreasing temperature for the 2¯35 pillars, in contrast to 1¯49 pillars, where only a weak temperature dependence is observed. Furthermore, for 2¯35 pillars, the appearance of slip is less prominent at 198K, indicating that the temperature strongly influences the relative motion of screw and edge dislocations. Molecular Dynamics (MD) simulations performed at 15K and 300K, was used to study dislocation mechanisms for the two orientations. 1¯49 pillars exhibit a change in deformation mechanisms at low temperature and the evolution of dislocation density during deformation, display distinct differences for the two loading orientations.

A single cell culture system using lectin-conjugated magnetite nanoparticles and magnetic force to screen mutant cyanobacteria.

Cyanobacteria can be utilized as a potential biocatalyst for the production of biofuels and biochemicals directly from CO2. Useful mutants of cyanobacteria, which can grow rapidly or are resistant to specific metabolic products, are essential to improve the productivity of biofuels. In this study, we developed a single cell culture system to effectively screen mutant cyanobacteria using magnetite nanoparticles and magnetic force. Lens culinaris Agglutinin (LCA) was selected as a lectin, which binds to the surface of Synechococcus elongatus PCC7942 cells and the LCA-conjugated magnetite cationic liposomes (MCLs) were developed for magnetic labeling of PCC7942 cells. The MCL-labeled PCC7942 cells were magnetically patterned at a single cell level by using 6,400 iron pillars of the pin-holder device. The device enabled 1,600 single cells to be arrayed in one square centimeter. We cultured the patterned cells in liquid medium and achieved higher colony-forming ratio (78.4%) than that obtained using conventional solid culture method (4.8%). Single cells with different properties could be distinguished in the single cell culture system depending on their growth. Furthermore, we could selectively pick up the target cells and subsequently perform efficient isolation culture. The ratio of successful isolation culture using the developed method was 13 times higher than that of the conventional methods. Thus, the developed system would serve as a powerful tool for screening mutant cyanobacteria.

Iron and cast iron in the architecture of Bucharest. Late 19th Century

Changes in the architecture of the city after the second half of the 19th century will fully benefit from the large scale adoption of iron and cast iron as constructions materials. These materials are used as a technical solution against the spread of fi re or to reinforce buildings, at the same time allowing the transition from a “closed”, massive architecture to a “framed” one, a landmark of the great Western cities brought to this area by foreign architects working during this time. Cast iron pillars and laminated profi le beams (sometimes even rail tracks) will gradually replace massive masonry and allow the opening of interior spaces to the “light” of the streets. In the context of the disappearance of a major part of the built heritage, researching the archives may provide an objective insight of the print left by the two materials on architecture and the city.

Strengthening mechanisms of iron micropillars

We examine the size effect and strengthening mechanisms of bcc iron pillars. The single-crystal pillars were machined with focused ion beam and tested with a nanoindentation device with the compression axis along the crystallographic direction. We compare our test results with both older literature on whiskers and micro/macro specimens, and recent results from atomistic modelling. We find that the obtained results can be explained on the basis of current theories based on small-scale plasticity.

Preparation and Catalytic Performance of Fe-Cr-Si-Pillared Montmorillonite as Coal Liquefaction Catalyst

A set of pillared montmorillonite (PILM) catalysts were prepared by exchanging Na+ with iron pillars, chromium pillars, complexes pillars of iron and chromium with different proportion, as well as complexes pillar of silica sol and iron and chromium, respectively. X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray fluorescence (XRF), thermogravimetry (TG) and differential thermal analysis (DTA) were used to characterize the catalysts. The XRD results reveal that Fe-Cr complexes pillared montmorillonites (Fe/Cr-PILM) have the basal spacing of about 2.04 nm after calcination at 300 °C for 2 h, while sole metal PILM have that of about 1.0 nm; in particular, the basal spacing of silica sol complexes pillared montmorillonite (Fe-Cr-Si-PILM) are expanded up to 4.33 nm. The TG-DTA results show that both Fe-Cr-PILM and Fe-Cr-Si-PILM have high thermal stability up to 640 °C. Catalytic activity of Fe/Cr-Si-PILM in Longkou lignite (LL) and ShengLi coal residue (SCR) liquefaction was studied, which showed that PILM had a good catalytic performance in coal conversion field.

MD Simulations of Compression of Nanoscale Iron Pillars

ABSTRACTIt is now possible to create perfect crystal nanowires of many metals. The deformation of such objects requires a good understanding of the processes involved in plasticity at the nanoscale. Isotropic compression of such nanometre scale micropillars is a good model system to understand the plasticity. Here we investigate these phenomena using Molecular Dynamics (MD) simulations of nanometre scale single crystal BCC iron pillars in compression.We find that pillars with large length to width ratio may buckle under high strain rates. The type of buckling behaviour depends sensitively on the boundary conditions used: periodic boundary conditions allow for rotation at top and bottom of the pillar, and result in an S shaped buckle, by contrast fixed boundaries enforce a C shape. Pillars with a length to width ratio closer to that used in experimental micropillar compression studies show deformation behaviour dominated by slip, in agreement with the experiments. For micropillars oriented along &lt;100&gt;, slip occurs on &lt;110&gt; planes and localized slip bands are formed. Pillars of this size experience higher stresses than bulk materials before yielding takes place. One might expect that this may be in part due to the lack of nucleation sites needed to induce slip. However, further simulations with possible dislocation sources: a shorter iron pillar containing a spherical grain boundary, and a similar pillar containing jagged edges did not show a decreased yield strength.

Arc of the Medicine Line: Mapping the World’s Longest Undefended Border across the Western Plains (review)

Reviewed by: Arc of the Medicine Line: Mapping the World’s Longest Undefended Border across the Western Plains Sheila McManus Arc of the Medicine Line: Mapping the World’s Longest Undefended Border across the Western Plains. Tony Rees. Toronto: Douglas & Mcintyre, 2007. Pp. 384, $36.95 Tony Rees is an excellent storyteller and this story is worth telling. Arc of the Medicine Line is the first detailed narrative of the 1872–4 survey of the Canada-U.S. border between the Lake of the Woods and the Rocky Mountains. In less than three years the British and American survey teams mapped and marked more than eight hundred miles of the forty-ninth parallel from the Lake of the Woods to the Continental Divide, produced detailed topographical maps of about nine thousand square miles, and placed 388 boundary markers including iron pillars, stone cairns, and earth mounds (344). The book provides enough technical information for a lay reader to understand and appreciate the full range of scientific work the teams conducted, which went far beyond the survey itself to include the flora and fauna. But the real focus is on the British, Canadian, and American men who made up the two commissions. The story is grounded in extensive primary research – the reports, journal, diaries, and letters written by men from both teams. The highlight is certainly the personal correspondence, where the men told their wives and family members exactly what they thought of each other, their jobs, the food, the weather, the land they were passing through, and the Native peoples they met along the way. The book is organized chronologically so that a reader can follow each step of the journey. The map at the front of the book is excellent, and the photos are familiar but reproduced to a very high standard. Scholarly readers will have two concerns with the book. The first is that there is very little secondary research in the book, and what is there is a bit dated. There is no mention of recent scholarship about the Canada-U.S. border or the outstanding recent scholarship about the Native peoples of the borderlands like the Cree, Sioux, Metis, and Blackfoot. There is little historiographical context for the narrative, and perhaps this was Rees’s goal, because context has a way of bogging down a good story. The lack of historical context will be the other concern many readers will have, and this is particularly problematic in Rees’s treatment of First Nations peoples. By emphasizing the ‘moment’ the survey started and framing it with Aboriginal deaths, Rees leaves one with the impression that this survey marked the end of the Aboriginal chapter [End Page 585] of the history of the West and the start of the chapter about heroic white men conquering the land. The introduction and the final chapter hinge upon the Cypress Hills Massacre of 1873, the flight of the Sioux northward after Little Bighorn in 1876, and the flight of the Nez Perce in 1877; the final chapter also throws in the 1885 Northwest Rebellion to explain where the Metis went. This gives the unfortunate impression that the book is sounding the death knell for groups who are still alive and well today, because that makes a more dramatic backdrop for the central cast of white characters. Native peoples do appear throughout the book, but as backdrop – convenient but lazy workers, or necessary but inscrutable informants, or invisible moccasin-providers, or threatening opponents. This problem is perhaps unavoidable, given the emphasis on primary sources written exclusively by white men, and the lack of secondary sources that could have given other perspectives. The story of the 1872–4 boundary survey, the men involved, and the staggering amount of work they completed has been waiting a long time for its own full treatment. This book is invaluable for any of us who work on the history of the Canada-U.S border across the West, and will be appreciated by anyone eager to know more about the border itself. Sheila McManus University of Lethbridge Copyright © 2008 University of Toronto Press

Copper ion-exchanged and impregnated Fe-pillared clays: Study of the influence of the synthesis conditions on the activity for the selective catalytic reduction of NO with C 3H 6

Copper ion-exchanged and impregnated iron-pillared interlayer clays (Fe-PILCs), prepared by using copper solutions with different pH values and copper precursors, were tested in the selective catalytic reduction (SCR) of NO x by propene. Low pH values led to dehydroxylation of the iron pillars and damages in the clay structure. Samples prepared without pH control presented isolated Cu 2+ ions; those prepared by using alkaline pH solutions presented Cu 2+ ions and CuO clusters. It was observed that the presence of Cu 2+ ions accompanied by CuO clusters led to an improvement in the NO x yield to N 2, which was in agreement with the best activity for C 3H 6 combustion showed by these catalysts. The best catalytic results were obtained with samples prepared by ion exchange with copper II acetate under alkaline pH, where Cu 2+ ions and CuO clusters were simultaneously formed in an adequate proportion.

Langevin simulation of thermally activated magnetization reversal in nanoscale pillars

Numerical solutions of the Landau-Lifshitz-Gilbert micromagnetic model incorporating thermal fluctuations and dipole-dipole interactions (calculated by the Fast Multipole Method) are presented for systems composed of nanoscale iron pillars of dimension 9 nm x 9 nm x 150 nm. Hysteresis loops generated under sinusoidally varying fields are obtained, while the coercive field is estimated to be 1979 $\pm$ 14 Oe using linear field sweeps at T=0 K. Thermal effects are essential to the relaxation of magnetization trapped in a metastable orientation, such as happens after a rapid reversal of an external magnetic field less than the coercive value. The distribution of switching times is compared to a simple analytic theory that describes reversal with nucleation at the ends of the nanomagnets. Results are also presented for arrays of nanomagnets oriented perpendicular to a flat substrate. Even at a separation of 300 nm, where the field from neighboring pillars is only $\sim$ 1 Oe, the interactions have a significant effect on the switching of the magnets.

Thermal magnetization reversal in arrays of nanoparticles

The results of large-scale simulations investigating the dynamics of magnetization reversal in arrays of single-domain nanomagnets after a rapid reversal of the applied field at nonzero temperature are presented. The numerical micromagnetic approach uses the Landau–Lifshitz–Gilbert equation including contributions from thermal fluctuations and long-range dipole–dipole demagnetizing effects implemented using a fast-multipole expansion. The individual model nanomagnets are 9 nm×9 nm×150 nm iron pillars similar to those fabricated on a surface with scanning tunneling microscope assisted chemical vapor deposition [S. Wirth et al., J. Appl. Phys. 85, 5249 (1999)]. Nanomagnets oriented perpendicular to the surface and spaced 300 nm apart in linear arrays are considered. The applied field is always oriented perpendicular to the surface. When the magnitude of the applied field is less than the coercive value, about 2000 Oe for an individual nanomagnet, magnetization reversal in the nanomagnets can only occur by thermally activated processes. Even though the interaction from the dipole moment of neighboring magnets in this geometry is only about 1 Oe, less than 1% of the coercive field, it can have a large impact on the switching dynamics. What determines the height of the free-energy barrier is the difference between the coercive and applied fields, and 1 Oe can be a significant fraction of that. The magnetic orientations of the neighbors are seen to change the behavior of the nanomagnets in the array significantly.

Pillaring of synthetic hectorite by mixed [Al13-xFex] Pillars

AbstractThe pillaring of a Laponite by alumina pillars, iron pillars and mixed Al-Fe pillars was obtained by a simple in situ method starting from AlCl3 and/or FeCl3 solutions with different molar ratio Fe/(Fe + Al), and from NaOH solution added simultaneously to the clay suspension. The Al13 pillars were evidenced by XRD and NMR spectra. The density and the charge of these pillars were calculated from the chemical analysis. The Fe pillars (in samples with Fe content &gt;26%) are larger than Al13 pillars and slowly reducible by hydrogen temperature programmed reduction (H2TPR), but we do not have any information on their structure. There is also an excess of non-pillar Fe retained by the pillared clays probably as oxyhydroxides. The isomorphic substitution in the mixed (Al-Fe)13 pillars (in samples with an Fe content &gt;26%) was evidenced by H2TPR results compared to the chemical analyses and by the interpretation of the 27A1 peaks in the NMR spectra.

Strength of cast iron and timber pillars: A series of tables showing the breaking weight of cast iron, Dantzic oak, and red deal pillars

Strength of cast iron and timber pillars: A series of tables showing the breaking weight of cast iron, Dantzic oak, and red deal pillars

Strength of cast iron and timber pillers: A series of tables showing the breaking weight of cast iron, dantzic oak, and red deal pillars

Strength of cast iron and timber pillers: A series of tables showing the breaking weight of cast iron, dantzic oak, and red deal pillars

Strength of cast iron and timber pillars: A series of tables showing the breaking weight of cast iron, Dantzic Oak, and red deal pillars

Strength of cast iron and timber pillars: A series of tables showing the breaking weight of cast iron, Dantzic Oak, and red deal pillars