Iron Objects Research Articles

A Study on Metallurgical Artifacts Excavated from Luojiaba Site H235 in the Eastern Sichuan Region during the Eastern Han Dynasty

Currently, research remains limited on ironworking workshops in China and even throughout East Asia. The discovery of Luojiaba Site H235 in 2021 provides significant new material on this issue. This paper comprehensively organized the metallurgical artifacts and employed technological methods such as XRF and SEM-EDS to analyze the slag and hammerscale excavated from Luojiaba Site H235. First, the chemical composition and microstructural phases of the slag were analyzed, with an examination of the hammerscale. Second, the processes leading to the formation of slag and hammerscale are discussed. Third, based on the scale of the site, the chemical composition, and the characteristic shapes of the slag, combined with Serneels’ theoretical framework for quantitative analysis of forging slag, the slag unearthed from Luojiaba Site H235 was tentatively categorized as forging slag. This suggests that the workshop primarily produced or repaired iron objects through forging. Finally, considering the furnace shapes observed at contemporary sites and discussions on the potential sources of iron materials at the Luojiaba site, speculations are made regarding the furnace structure at the Luojiaba site and the possible origin of its iron materials. Unlike ironworking workshops at other contemporary sites, the location of the forging workshop at Luojiaba Site H235 presents a distinctly different choice, situated within a village or town during the Eastern Han Dynasty. This choice of location may reflect a phenomenon closer to consumer proximity. Therefore, analyzing metallurgical artifacts unearthed from Luojiaba contributes to understanding the operation of ironworking workshops and the distribution of resources in village-level settlements in the eastern Sichuan region during the Eastern Han Dynasty.

砥石을 통해 본 한반도 동남부지역의 開始期 철기 제작기술

In relation to the beginning of ancient iron production in the southeastern part of the Korean Peninsula, the issue of wrought iron production has been a major issue, with research focused on furnace wall and tuyre fragments, iron materials, and slag found in association within dwellings. However, whetstones, which functioned as a processing tool throughout humankind’s long history, have yet to be fully examined in relation to wrought iron production. Therefore, this paper presents the results of analysis undertaken on the use traces of the ground whetstones excavated from archaeological sites. It was found that the whet-stones can be largely divided into those with the abrasive section located partially or along the entire surface of the stone. In the areas where the iron tools were used from the initial stage, it was identified that the stone manufacturing technology of the local communities was utilized and evidence of the working of iron products could be observed on the sur-face of the whetstones. In addition, the fact that iron objects have have been unearthed in contexts in which iron production by-products have not been identified shows that the use of whetstones was not limited to iron smithing. In addition, in relation to the initial period of iron use ob-served mainly in the Geumho River basin, the characteristics and distribution of iron pro-duction sites from the same period are not uniform, indicating that the nature of iron use and production in the initial period in the southeastern region was not uniform. The development of the initial iron production technology for the southeastern part of the Korean Peninsula was examined by identifying different aspects in the southeastern part of Kyushu, Western Japan, where the situation of reusing iron fragments was con-firmed over a long period of time and over a wide area.

Ancient iron and slags in Greenland

The bloomery iron production method, which was in general use in medieval time, is presented in some detail. It is discussed how slags are formed, and how production slags and purification slags may be distinguished. The slag-analytical method is introduced and is applied on a large number of iron objects from ancient Norse and Inuit sites. Particular emphasis is placed on scanning electron microscopy and microanalysis of the minute slag inclusions in the artefacts. It is shown that a major part of the iron objects on Norse sites was probably made from Norwegian iron ores, and arrived as finished products from Norway. The presence of a few purification slags in the Eastern and Western Settlements prove, however, that raw blooms were sometimes shipped from Norway and afterwards finished by smithing in Greenland. The present study does not support the theory that primary iron production took place in the Norse settlements. A number of iron tools on Inuit sites are shown to be of Walloon origin, having arrived on whaling and expedition ships since the late 16th century. It is argued that many of the harpoon heads and knives were forged by the ships' blacksmiths according to the desires of the Inuit. Walloon iron was also present in Haabetz Colonie in 1721 AD. Some puddled iron nails were identified in Washington Land. They are probably relics from some 19th century American expedition. Finally, the northernmost and largest iron meteorite tool ever found, a lancehead, was identified in Washington Land. Also, a meteoritic arrowhead was identified in the Western Settlement. The arrowhead was made from Cape York meteoritic iron and must have been traded to the Norsemen before 1350 AD.

Scientific analysis of iron objects excavated from the Guantian Iron Production Site at Sangzhi County, Hunan Province, China

The Guantian site located in Sangzhi County in northwest Hunan Province, China. It is a low-level settlement and possibly an iron casting and processing site that existed during the Han and Jin periods (202 BCE–AD 420) in the Wuling Mountains region. Analysis of the excavated iron objects from the site reveals that they were mainly made from pig iron, malleable cast iron, and low-carbon steel. The metallurgical ceramic fragments may reflect the existence of melting process. Both casting and forging, with evidence of quenching technique were used in the producing process. Decarburization of cast iron in solid state was the main method of obtaining steel. Since during the Eastern Han dynasty (AD 25–220), the aboriginal in the Wuling Mountains region gradually became stronger, the use of iron-casting and processing technology played an important role in promoting regional social development of the Wuling Man (minorities in the Wuling Mountains region).

Green Alternatives for Archaeological Iron Stabilization

ABSTRACT One of the most challenging types of artifact occurring within museum collections is unstable chloride-contaminated archaeological iron. A high chloride concentration causes cracking, flaking and leads to full mineralization, in effect making objects fragile. Consequently, removal of chloride ions plays a key role in stabilization treatment, while preserving the integrity of the corroded iron object. Despite the variety of stabilization methods, all have significant disadvantages, including a lack of sustainability. Within the framework of the Horizon Europe project GoGreen the potential of microbial biosorption to stabilize archaeological iron artefacts is being investigated. Dry biomass of the fungi Meyerozyma sp. and Saccharomyces cerevisiae was studied to remove chloride ions. Preliminary tests were carried out on artificially-aged steel samples. To assess the activities of the microorganisms’ functional groups and biosorption capabilities as a potential green stabilization treatment, analytical techniques including FTIR, Raman spectroscopy, and SEM-EDX were used. The results demonstrate two promising paths for the development of green stabilization treatments based on fungal biomass: passive adsorption into the cell wall and conversion of reactive corrosion products into more stable compounds. The use of microbial biomass opens up promising perspectives for the development of more sustainable solutions in archaeological iron stabilization, while avoiding the generation of toxic waste in our environment.

FUNGICIDAL ACTIVITY OF THE BIOCIDAL DRUG "IODOSAN"

The development of modern effective biocidal remedy for poultry, non-toxic disinfection in the presence of poultry with prolonged effect and sanitizing the air environment is a constant task for scientists. Controling of test cultures of micromycetes is the main indicator of determining the effectiveness of the drug. Various methods are used for this. The results of research on the effect of the biocidal drug "Iodosan" based on lactic acid, iodine, isopropanol demonstrated its fungicidal activity against the reference strains of Candida albicans ATCC 10231 and Aspergillus niger ATCC 16404. It is established that by the method of serial dilutions, using paper discs on the Chapek medium and on agar malt extract under the action of the biocidal drug "Iodosan" was determined to have an effective concentration of 0.75%.
 The biocidal drug «Iodosan» in 1.0% concentration after exposure for 60 minutes of effectively disinfected test objects of wood, iron, brick and plaster that were contaminated with micromycetes. It has been proven that the activity of the biocidal drug «Iodosan» depends on the concentration, the duration of exposure, which is why it is important to follow to these regimes when using it.

Archaeometric study of the iron objects from the Xuechi sacrificial site and its implication for bloomery iron smelting during early Western Han period in China

AbstractMetallographic examination and compositional study of slag inclusions on iron objects unearthed from Xuechi in Shaanxi, China, have revealed the smelting and manufacturing techniques employed at this Western Han dynasty sacrificial site. The results suggest two production systems among the samples: all knives, nails, and farming implements were made from cast iron that had been decarburised/malleablised through annealing or fining process. It is proposed that these samples were produced in designated state‐owned workshop. Two horse‐bit sets, on the other hand, were forged into shape using both bloomery iron and fined iron from various sources, with possible repairing and recycling involved in the manufacturing process. It is therefore argued that the horse bits found in the site came with the horse and had been produced separately from the other iron objects. Furthermore, this paper argues that although cast iron‐based production was the main method for large‐scale iron production, small‐scale bloomery iron smelting may have been practiced during the Western Han dynasty in certain regions as an alternate but economically viable method.

The implication of the technology and chronology reflected in the metal assemblage from the middle‐class Xiongnu burials at Tamiryn Ulaan Khoshuu, Mongolia

AbstractBronze and iron objects from the middle‐class Xiongnu burials at Tamiryn Ulaan Khoshuu were examined for technology and chronology. The bronze objects were made from copper–tin–lead alloys, mostly for ornamental purposes, while the iron objects were household items made of cast iron. Radiocarbon measurements dated the site to the 4th century bce to the 1st century ce. The results revealed two key factors: (1) Xiongnu style material culture established by incorporating various contributions from across Eurasia at an earlier date than previously supposed; and (2) the emergence of regionally stratified material culture suggesting intimate political relationships consistently maintained between geographically distant Xiongnu communities.

Review: Secrets of Iron – From Raw Material to an Iron Object

Review: Secrets of Iron – From Raw Material to an Iron Object

Huge amounts of iron raw material from the Early Iron Age settlement of Dédestapolcsány-Verebce (N-Hungary) – a preliminary archaeometallurgical study

The team of the Institute of Archaeological Sciences of the Eötvös Loránd University has been investigating the Early Iron Age hillfort at Dédestapolcsány-Verebce-bérc (Northeast Hungary) since 2020. The settlement was destroyed by siege in the late 7th century BC, as evidenced by hundreds of early Scythian bronze arrowheads and burnt buildings. Based on the recovered metal and pottery findings the settlement dated to the Early Iron Age in the Carpathian Basin (end of the 7th century – beginning of the 6th century BC). The quantity of the Early and Middle Iron Age iron and bronze artefacts and pieces of iron raw material on the site is exceptionally high. More than 30 depots were unearthed which include pieces of iron raw material. In the whole territory, the number of these finds is more than 600. The average weight of the pieces was 1.54 kg. A few selected objects were sampled and subjected to archaeometric analysis (OM and SEM-EDS). The main aim of the examinations carried out by the experts of the Archaeometallurgical Research Group of the University of Miskolc (ARGUM) was the material characterisation of the samples to figure out what kind of processing has been applied and reveal how the iron raw materials can be connected in any way to the other iron objects found at the site. Based on the results, it can be concluded that the iron pieces are compacted with a slightly heterogeneous structure. Each one is a part of a single bloom, not several pieces of different blooms assembled together. Numerous pores and cavities were observed in the microstructure of the samples. Their basic character is similar, although, they differ from each other, mainly in terms of carbon content and degree of forming. These pieces are not typical semi-finished products; they can be identified somewhere halfway between primary bloom and compacted bar.

Chemistry of ancient materials of iron in India

India is acclaimed for its rich heritage of iron making at least since the protohistoric era. The ancient artisans were able to create iron artefacts possessing outstanding characteristics, which demonstrates the level of expertise they had attained in the field of chemistry and metallurgy. Numerous iron artefacts including iron pillar in Delhi, iron pillar in Dhar, iron beams at Sun temple in Konark, bear eloquent testimony to this. Therefore, it is fascinating to study the chemistry involved in the preparation and properties of these iron-based ancient materials. Several scholars have contributed to the study of iron artefacts discovered from various sites across India which belong to different periods, regions and dynasties. Across the scholarly spectrum, special attention has been paid to study the chemistry involved in the marvelous characteristics like super corrosion resistance of iron pillars, cannons, etc.This review, therefore, presents the recent insights into iron-based materials in ancient India.Our objective is to highlight (1) a brief historical background, (2) chemical composition, (3) preparation of the material, (4) surface microstructure and (5) the mechanism behind the special features, of iron artefacts. Analysis of antiquarian remains with the help of different characterization techniques like X-ray diffraction (XRD), Proton induced X-ray emission, Energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Mössbauer spectroscopy, High Resolution Transmission Electron Microscopy (HRTEM), micro particles induced X-ray emission (μPIXE), etc. have been focused upon. The ancient iron making process used for producing high quality wootz steel has been discussed too. A detailed analysis of the rust-free iron pillar of Delhi has been presented. In particular, the iron pillar at Dhar, Adi-Mookambika temple, Kodachadri, and iron beams at Sun Temple, Konark, Damascus swords made of wootz steel, cannon at Thanjavur and iron specimens of Gupta period at Eran (Madhya Pradesh) are the artefacts studied to understand the characteristics of iron objects produced in India during ancient times. This study can support the future making of metallic monuments and artefacts with outstanding characteristics. This review is expected to appeal across the disciplines, including but not limited to, materials science, chemistry, physics, metallurgy, chemical engineering and archaeology.

The Production of Marine Iron Objects in Europe Following the First Industrial Revolution: The Akko Tower Shipwreck Test Case

Four ferrous objects, a winch, a heart-shaped shackle, a deadeye strap with a futtock plate, and a stud-link chain controller, that were retrieved from the Akko Tower shipwreck were studied by different methods, including conventional metallography, light microscopy, scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive spectroscopy, optical emission spectroscopy, microhardness measurements, and the novel field multi-focal metallography (FMM), in order to determine their composition, microstructure, and manufacturing methods. The results of FMM agree well with conventional destructive metallography. The winch drum was made of grey cast iron and its shaft was wrought iron; the heart-shaped shackle and the deadeye strap with a futtock plate were wrought iron; and the stud-link chain controller was grey cast iron similar in composition and microstructure to the winch. All the wrought iron items revealed a similar composition and microstructure. Based on the composition, microstructure, and manufacturing processes of the four items, it is suggested that they were manufactured in the mid-nineteenth century. The high quality of these items indicates that they were produced using controlled processes, probably in the same workshop.

TECHNOLOGICAL FEATURES OF SMITHERY PRODUCTS FROM MOSCOW SETTLEMENTS OF THE 14th–15th CENTURIES

The article discusses the results of archaeometallographic studies of iron products from the settlements Myakinino 1, Myakinino 2 and Nastasino 2 – the largest archaeological sites in Moscow region. The authors identify technological patterns for manufacturing smithery products from these sites. It was established that these patterns differed significantly: for Myakinino 1 and Myakinino 2, technological groups I and III p-redominate, while in Nastasino all three groups are represented in equal proportions. The technological model typical for Myakinino 1 and Myakinino 2 was formed on the basis of supplies from two manufacturing centres – the urban and the rural one. The model identified by studying the Nastasino materials has much in common with the pattern characterizing the iron objects from the Istye 2 production complex. The authors use a specific example to demonstrate that rural settlements were included in the complex commodity exchange with urban and rural manufacturing centres.

The Craft of the Rural Blacksmiths in Ancient Rus’

This article discusses the role of rural blacksmithing in the economic structure of a feudal state. The study is based on the metallographic analysis of a large number of iron objects taken from archaeological sites of Ancient Rus’. It can be summarized that rural blacksmithing craft was a much more complex phenomenon than previously believed. The authors have come to the conclusion that the rural blacksmithing was an important component of the production sphere of Ancient Rus’ and had a significant contribution to the feudal economies.

First results of metallographic analysis and absolute dating of iron finds from Nowe Brzesko, site 26, Proszowice District

AbstractThis paper presents the results of analyses of metal artefacts discovered at a multiphase site in Nowe Brzesko, Małopolskie Voivodeship, Poland. Fieldwalking prospection led to the discovery of steely iron objects, ploughed out on the site among other numerous archeological finds. A prospecting sondage yielded more corroded metal artefacts, identified mainly as agricultural tools (e.g. sickles, scythes). These chronologically nondistinctive artefacts could be assigned to the third to fourth century AD using radiocarbon dating, complemented by metallurgical analysis. The results open up new research perspectives on the economy and society of the Przeworsk culture in the Late Roman period.

Metallographic structures and corrosion: cross-section investigation of archaeological iron objects from the Qin-Han Yueyang City site in Xi’an, China

Metallographic structures and corrosion: cross-section investigation of archaeological iron objects from the Qin-Han Yueyang City site in Xi’an, China

ЭЛЕМЕНТЫ ПОЯСОВ НАСЕЛЕНИЯ СЕВЕРНОГО АЛТАЯ ЖУЖАНСКОГО ВРЕМЕНИ (ПО МАТЕРИАЛАМ НЕКРОПОЛЯ ЧОБУРАК-I)

The article presents the results of studying the collection of belt sets from the burials of the Bulan-Koby culture necropolis of Choburak-I, completely excavated by the expedition of Altai State University. This site is located in the Chemal district of the Altai Republic, on the right bank of the Katun river. The published materials come from eleven undisturbed objects. The analyzed series is represented by iron objects: 17 buckles, 90 plaques, four tips, one distributor, five “blocks”, 14 fasteners. They find numerous analogies in the burial complexes of the Bulan-Koby culture of Altai in the 2nd – 5th centuries AD. A comparative study of the morphological features of the preserved metal parts made it possible to determine their relative chronology within the designated period. The study of the mutual occurrence of fixed categories of equipment became the basis for identifying several types of typesetting belts found in six burials. It has been established that the difference in the qualitative and quantitative composition of the belt sets is not related to the age and social status of the deceased men and, apparently, reflects the personal preferences of their owners. Belts from the graves of women, a teenager and a child were equipped with a minimum number of elements. The considered products demonstrate the variability in the design of belts by the population of the Northern Altai in the Rouran period. Archaeological data from the excavations of the Choburak-I site confirm the previously identified trends in the evolution of the equipment of the population of Altai at the turn of late antiquity and the early Middle Ages.

Combining isotope ratios for provenancing Viking Age iron artefacts in the British Isles: a pilot study.

Stable and radiogenic isotope analysis - particularly using lead isotope analysis (LIA) - has previously been shown to be a useful tool for the provenancing of ancient metal artefacts of silver and copper and its alloys, but less progress has been made in the provenancing of iron artefacts, despite their importance and frequency in the archaeological record. In this pilot study we investigate for the first time the possibilities of iron isotope analysis in combination with trace strontium isotope analysis and LIA for the provenancing of iron objects believed to be from the Viking Age in the British Isles. Previous studies have shown that analysis of each of these isotopes can contribute to provenancing iron artefacts, but they are not individually resolutory. In this proof-of-concept study, we examine the Fe, Sr and Pb isotopes of 7 artefacts believed to derive from the Viking Age: 3 from Meols - a former Viking seaport on Wirral and 4 samples from the probable location of the AD 1066 Battle of Fulford in North Yorkshire. We also examine an additional artefact of unknown antiquity from Bebington Heath - a possible location of the AD 937 Battle of Brunanburh. Although the pilot data set is too small to make definitive conclusions, it has paved the way for a fuller study involving 100 samples (including 30 from the former Viking camp of Torksey, Lincolnshire) funded by the NEIF fund of the UK National Environmental Research Council. The high range of 87Sr/86Sr values in the present data set of 8 is beyond what would be expected for bog iron (with a cut-off ∼ 0.709) and suggests that mined ore was being used, a preliminary conclusion supported by the narrow range of Fe isotope data.

Embedded iron object detection using asynchronous full wave envelope detector technique in ground penetrating radar system

<span lang="EN-US">The use of a ground penetrating radar (GPR) system that operates at low frequencies allows the detection of embedded objects underground from the earth’s surface deeper than high frequency. However, the output signal generated from the system using <a name="_Hlk111888456"></a>pulse modulation (PM) technique and high-frequency carrier, has many high ripple signals consequently resulting in a blurry image. Nevertheless, this ripple signal can be minimized by reprocessing the signal using an envelope detector method. In this study, an envelope detection technique called ArJED<sup>©</sup> asynchronous full-wave (AFW) was used in the GPR system and was tested at a frequency range from 0.06 to 0.08 GHz. A dipole antenna has been used as an embedded object detection sensor of the GPR system. The detection system of embedded objects involves four depths starting with 2 cm depth, 5 cm, 7 cm, and 20 cm. A comparison of embedded object images before and after the application of the envelope detection technique was done and proved that the proposed envelope detection technique has produced a clearer radargram image of the GPR system.</span>

Stabilization and Conservation of Iron Objects in the Collections of the Institute of History, National Academy of Sciences of Belarus

The Institute of History of the National Academy of Sciences of Belarus possesses a century-old repository of archaeological artefacts obtained during planned and rescue excavations. Iron items are a true gem of this collection. Until recently, stabilization, conservation, and restoration of iron artefacts remained a relevant problem, a lot of items being lost to corrosion. The experimental laboratory for stabilization and conservation of archaeological iron, which appeared in 2019, stabilizes iron artefacts by treating them with thin alkaline sulfite solution under ultrasound. This method is extremely effective against active corrosion. More than 200 iron objects have already undergone a full cycle of conservation. Half of them is deposited in the repositories of the Institute of History, and the other half is exhibited at its archaeological scientific museum. Restoration preserves metal objects for research, increases their interpretability, and introduces them into scientific circulation. Their appearance being restored, iron artefacts can be exhibited both at stationary and traveling exhibitions, thus popularizing the domestic archaeology and encouraging cooperation with Russian historians.