BackgroundNorthwestern Xinjiang is situated at the confluence of the central Eurasian Steppe, the Inner Asian Mountain Corridor and the Tianshan mountains, and is home to rich archaeological, cultural and genetic diversity. However, the local population dynamics remain poorly understood due to the lack of time-series ancient DNA data.ResultsWe analyze DNA from ten individuals from the Narensu site in northwestern Xinjiang spanning the Chalcolithic to the Iron Age. Our findings reveal that the earliest inhabitants of northwestern Xinjiang were formed by a genetic admixture of Ancient North Eurasians and Altai hunter-gatherers around 6000 years ago. The simultaneous arrival of ancestry related to the Bactria Margiana Archaeological Complex from Central Asia and Afanasievo-related populations from the Steppe in the early Bronze Age was detected, thereby highlighting the important role of the Inner Asian Mountain Corridor as a migration route between southern Central Asia and Xinjiang. This may also have involved the formation of the Chemurchek population in Altai, northern Xinjiang bordering Russia. Eurasian steppe ancestry identified in Narensu has changed to the late Bronze Age Sintashta populations, and eastern Eurasian ancestry from Baikal turns prominent since the Iron Age.ConclusionsHere, by reconstructing the population dynamics from the Chalcolithic to the Iron Age, our study reveals that the Narensu inhabitants have continuously accumulated with multiple waves of gene influx from surrounding regions. Altogether, these findings provide a comprehensive picture into the population fusion history of northwestern Xinjiang as well as across the Eurasian continent.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13059-026-03943-0.

ABSTRACT Between 2018 and 2021, the Identification and Documentation of Immovable Heritage Assets (IDIHA) Project recorded over 19,000 rock art panels in the AlUla (al‐‘Ulā) region of north‐western Saudi Arabia. This study presents a chronological assessment of the corpus, drawing on superimpositions, datable motifs, inscriptions, and varnish formation, alongside a diachronic analysis of recurring themes. The rock art of AlUla spans more than 12,000 years, from the early Holocene to the recent past, with notable peaks in production during the Neolithic and, more substantially, the Iron Age and ‘pre‐Islamic’ periods. These temporal fluctuations contrast with patterns observed at other northern Arabian sites and likely reflect population increase in the AlUla valley during the first millennium BCE and CE . Scenes of Neolithic cattle herding, Iron Age camel caravans, and Islamic‐era battles offer insight into the lived experiences and symbolic expressions of AlUla's inhabitants across millennia.

This study investigates health, dental development, diet, and human-environment interactions in individuals buried in the necropolises of Pontecagnano (Campania, Italy, 7th-6th century BCE), using an integrated approach merging dental histomorphometry and calculus micro-residue analysis. The sample consists of 30 permanent teeth (canines, first and second molars) from 10 individuals. Histomorphometric analysis of dental thin sections allowed the estimation of crown formation times, initial cusp formation, crown completion, and enamel extension rates. The prevalence of Accentuated Lines, marking physiological stress events, was analyzed chronologically across tooth classes. Dental calculus analysis was performed on five individuals, identifying plant micro-remains and fungal spores. Crown formation times varied by tooth class, with canines forming the longest (mean = 1,977 ± 295 days), followed by second molars (mean = 1,176 ± 179 days) and first molars (mean = 1,094 ± 154 days). Initial cusp formation values, estimated through chronological overlap between teeth, allowed for a more accurate reconstruction of crown completion timing. Accentuated Lines prevalence peaked at 12 and 44 months, likely reflecting early childhood dietary transitions and the differential recording of stress events across different crown regions. Calculus analysis identified starch granules from cereals (Triticeae) and legumes (Fabaceae), fungal spores (Saccharomyces), and plant fibers, indicating diverse dietary practices, food processing, and extra-masticatory activities. This interdisciplinary approach reinforces the validity of combining histomorphometric and micro-residue analyses to reconstruct childhood health, adult diet, and lifestyle. Our findings align with previous research while emphasizing population-specific variations. This study enhances understanding of Iron Age biocultural adaptations, offering insights into developmental and dietary behaviors in this ancient Italian community.

Since the 1950s, radiocarbon dating of archeological remains has evolved significantly with the advent of new instruments, protocols, and redesigned concepts. Here, we show that the recovery of chronological information "stored" locally can be achieved by the selective dating of carbonates present in adjacent mineralized organic materials. We present results from the iconic Iron Age site of Creney-le-Paradis (Aube, France). The 14C ages extracted using an innovative selective strategy provide new evidence for the chronology of the foundation of the site. We show that the copper carbonate accretions retained the signature of an anthropogenic humus layer, accurately dated between 808 and 790 BC, allowing us to infer human activity associated with the foundation of the burial mound. This work opens the way for the development of spatially resolved dating imagery within sites, where the analysis of series of microsamples could document the chronology of their formation.

Abstract The study provides a radiocarbon sequence for the Iron Age occupation in the elevated areas of the Phoenician settlement of Lisbon, located in the Tagus estuary (Portugal). The dataset is based in ten animal and human samples recovered during archaeological excavations at Largo de Santa Cruz do Castelo. These samples are associated with distinct phases of the Iron Age, dated by the ceramic findings between the 7th and 5th century BCE, as well as a latter sample from the Roman Republican Period (2nd half of the 2nd century BCE). Despite the challenges posed by the 1st millennium BCE radiocarbon calibration, this dataset proves valuable for establishing a more detailed chronological framework. It represents a significant contribution to refining the timeline of Lisbon’s Iron Age settlement and provides a stronger basis for interpreting local developments within the broader regional context.

The Iron Age tumuli around ancient Gordion provide a unique window into coalescing processes of craft specialization, elite self-definition, monumentality, and intercommunity social interactions in central Anatolia between ca. 850 and 525 BC. This paper examines the use of timber in the construction of tomb chambers at Gordion through the lenses of social value and social capital and a quantitative comparison of tomb chamber dimensions. It finds a close relationship between monumental architecture, tumulus construction, and the creation of an elite, aristocratic class based on the accumulation of social capital, enacted through the acquisition and display of timber during the ninth century bc, the Early Phrygian period. The transportation of timber from beyond the immediate hinterland, the skillful crafting employed for tomb chamber construction, the element of enchantment imparted by the scale and concentration of timber as used in a chamber, and the transformative processes of the funerary rite all establish that timber was a socially valued good at Iron Age Gordion. Groups burying in tumuli appear to have competed for its acquisition and use in mortuary architecture, evident in the close correlation between tumulus size, chamber size, and maximum timber size, in particular during the ninth century BC when compared with the roughly 300-year-long period of inhumation-tumulus construction that followed. Access to and competition over this socially valued good were important processes in the development of new elite ideologies, which included attempts at the establishment of hereditary aristocratic status, a valuation of social capital. As a specialized craft tied to this social and ideological change, carpentry appears to have operated within an aristocratic mode of production; that is, it was shaped by an ethos of distinction and legitimation. Supplementary Materials can be found appended to the online version of this article.

Background/Objectives: Southeastern Europe and Croatia have served as a genetic crossroads between the Near East and Europe since prehistoric times, shaped by numerous and repeated migrations. By integrating 19 newly generated ancient genomes with 285 previously published ancient genomes from Croatia, we investigated patterns of maternal and paternal landscapes from the Neolithic, Bronze, and Iron Ages through to the Antiquity and medieval periods, as well as the modern Croatian population. Methods: Ancient DNA extraction from human remains and library preparation were conducted in dedicated clean-room facilities, followed by high-throughput sequencing on the Illumina platform. Sequencing data were analyzed with established pipelines to determine mitochondrial and Y-chromosomal haplogroups and the genetic sex of individuals. Results: New ancient data reveal a predominantly European maternal profile, dominated by haplogroups H, U, and HV0, whereas Y-chromosomal lineages are characterized by J subclades and R1a, with limited representation of R1b and the absence of I2a. When combined with published ancient Croatian genomes, the results reveal similar haplogroup diversity and patterns, as well as the expansion of mtDNA haplogroup H over time and a substantial increase in Y-chromosome R1a and I2a haplogroup frequency from the prehistoric to the modern period. Conclusions: Although the analyzed samples are heterogeneous and originate from different historical periods, their genetic signatures conform to the broader patterns expected for the region. In a wider context, the ancient Croatian mitochondrial data reveal stronger genetic persistence from prehistory to modern times, unlike paternal lineages, which show significantly higher divergence.

Abstract Archaeology prides itself on its ability to see beyond the urban elite. The countryside, the urban poor, gender and even children have all gradually come under the discipline’s gaze. The elderly, however, have failed to attract much scholarly attention. The few groundbreaking studies that tackled the issue scrutinized mortuary data and examined the ‘body’ of the elderly, but hardly any archaeological attention was given to the social aspects of the daily life of the old. Using one of the most detailed archaeological case studies available, and with the aid of ancient texts and ethnography, this article seeks to identify the ‘elderly’ and ‘elders’ in Iron Age Israel and, using Building 101 at Tel ʿEton as a test case, it places the fathers and mothers and their activities within the household.

The dataset described in this paper represents the repository of the archaeological sites (n = 796) for the Eastern Anatolian Highlands, from the known earliest settlements of the Chalcolithic Age (ca. 5000 BC) to the end of the Iron Age (ca. 200 BC). The data were collected from various publications, the results of archaeological excavations and surveys conducted in Eastern Anatolia over the past 100 years. The dataset is stored at the Zenodo repository under an open-access license. This dataset is also part of the Ph. D. project of Alper Aslan called Long-term Population dynamics and Human-Environment Interactions in Eastern Anatolia from the Chalcolithic to the Iron Age.

Excavations at Beit Safafa: Iron Age II and Byzantine Agricultural Installations South of Jerusalem

This article discusses the monumental Iron Age four-chambered gate excavated some 30 years ago at ʿEn Ḥaẓeva. Since the completion of the site’s excavation, only a handful of preliminary papers were published by Rudolph Cohen and Yigal Yisrael, the excavators of the site on behalf of the Israel Antiquities Authority, addressing in passing the stratigraphical and architectural settings of the gate. Some scholars have questioned these descriptions, suggesting that they may not accurately reflect the true nature of the remains. In recent years, the ʿEn Ḥaẓeva finds have been the focus of extensive scientific analyses in preparation for the publication of Cohen and Yisrael’s excavations. The time has finally come to place the Iron Age fortress gate accurately within its archaeological and stratigraphical context.

During the Late Bronze and Iron Ages, highly valuable ivory was continuously consumed in the Southern Levant, part of a Near Eastern interregional exchange sphere of prestigious commodities. The exquisite artistry of several ivory artefacts, their elite find contexts and the exotic origins of the raw material resulted in a specific art-historical approach to reconstructing ivory exchange and the cultural meanings of ivory artefacts. This paper offers another perspective on these phenomena, looking holistically at the spatial, chronological, taxonomic, typological and contextual properties of a large, systematically constructed database of artefacts. We show that both use and meaning of ivory fluctuated chronologically. It served to broadcast the authority of socio-political elites, as well as, at times, the economic success of individuals. We evaluate the diachronically changing consumption trends in light of recent theories emphasising the role of individual agents in ancient economies and underscore the material’s cultural appropriation in the Southern Levant. We highlight the significant, previously underestimated, Nilotic (Egyptian and Nubian) agency in this exchange. Methodologically, we demonstrate that reconstructing complex economic and social interactions requires a detailed contextual approach.

This paper evaluates the ‘En Ḥaẓeva and Tell el-Kheleifeh Iron Age fortresses within a broader chronological and historical context. Occupying strategic locations that dominated the two outlets of the Arabah Valley, the construction of the fortresses was likely driven by the wealth generated from the Arabian trade network. Their monumental scale suggests that a royal power with strong political influence over the Arabah Valley down to its southernmost end at the head of the Gulf of Aqaba, initiated their building and operated them. In addition to their functional duties, these building projects were designed to serve as symbols of power and control. Recent radiocarbon measurements establish the foundation date of the ‘En Ḥaẓeva fortress in the first half of the 8th century BCE, before the period of Assyrian hegemony in the southern Levant, and it is therefore argued that their construction was the initiative of the Northern Kingdom of Israel.

Southern Levantine societies during the Iron Age II (10th-8th centuries BCE) witnessed the formation of competing territorial polities and urban revival following a period of settlement ruralization and dwindling regional exchange economies associated with the collapse of Late Bronze Age Canaanite city-states around 1200 BCE. Recent work has revealed diverse expressions of complex political organization, state-sponsored cultic activity, and inter-polity conflicts within the region during the Iron Age II, but the impact of regular military confrontations and ensuing territorial reconfiguration on agro-pastoralist economic systems that supported these polities is unknown. Here we explore inter-polity border dynamics between the Israelite and Aramean states during periods of conflict (Iron Age IIA) and concord (Iron Age IIB) by establishing landscape-use strategies involving the most mobile element of Iron Age subsistence and production systems - domesticated sheep and goats, at Tel Hazor located in the Hula Valley, a place of direct contact between Aram and ancient Israel. Multi-stable isotopic analyses of bovid livestock teeth indicate agro-pastoralist herders grazed their animals in well-watered pastures locally near Hazor and also further afield in the Golan Heights. The continuous use of spatially diverse pasturing regimes throughout the Iron Age II suggests household-based agro-pastoralist land use transcended regional political discord. Everyday movement of herders and their flocks to distant pastures was not restricted despite conflict between the military and ruling elites of the Israelite and Aramean states, suggesting that borderlands between states were permeable.

The article deals with an ancient ceramic specimen - a fragment of an incense-burner body discovered during ar-chaeological excavations at the Vilashchai settlement (Yardimly district, Azerbaijan Republic) in July 2025. The Vilashchai settlement mainly dates back to the Early Iron Age, although archaeological materials from the Late Bronze Age were also found there. The fragment of the incense-burner body in question was discovered in square 1, at a depth of approximately 50 cm. Preserved dimensions: length: 7-7.4 cm; height: 4-4.5 cm; diameter of the holes: 0.7-0.8 cm. The artifact is brown in color, well-fired, and has traces of soot inside. The clay is pure and the pottery was handmade. Before firing, circular holes were made with a metal or bone awl. This type of incense-burner was widespread in the South Caspian region - in archaeological sites in northeastern Iran (Tepe Hissar, Shah Tepe, Tureng Tepe, Gohar Tappe and Tappe Narges) and one example was found in the Madau-depe settlement in southwestern Turkmenistan. These vessels were widespread from the late Bronze Age to the early Iron Age. The Vilashchai incense burner fragment bears similarities to artifacts found at Gohar Tappe and Shah Tepe. The Vilashchai artifact was likely imported from northeastern Iran. Given the paucity of archaeological sites from this period in the region, it is possible that similar objects exist in southeast of Azerbaijan, and that vessels of this type can be discovered in the future.

The paper deals with a kurgan of the same name, excavated near the village of Arvana, Yardimly district. The kurgan is of 5 m diameter. It was arranged by cromlech of large boulders around it. 8 ceramic vessels, 1 bronze ring and 1 bronze dagger were placed in the grave. On the eastern side of the grave, on the top of the dishes animal bones was found. And beneath them human skeletons were revealed. The Talysh-Mugan culture is characterized by large dolmen-like crypts, stone box graves and kurgans in the mountainous area, as well as cemeteries consisting of kurgans and earthen graves in the plain area. The existence of this culture in the form of two local groups is probably due to natural geographical conditions and other reasons. Archaeological materials characteristic of the Khojaly-Gedabey culture, synchronous with the Talysh-Mugan culture, were also discovered in the Arvana kurgan. This typicality shows that the hereditary connection between the various cultures of the Late Bronze — Early Iron Ages is chronologically complementary. According to a comparative analysis, the monument can be attributed to the second stage of the Talysh-Mugan culture — that is, 11th–10th centuries BC.

The recovery of a small lithic assemblage from excavations during improvements to the A1237/B1224, Wetherby Road roundabout, York, demonstrate that the area was being exploited, at least in a limited way, as early as the Neolithic. The earliest feature was defined as such by its stratigraphic relationship with a pit radiocarbon dated to the Bronze Age, and from which a rubber-stone for a saddle quern was recovered. Activity at the site had intensified by the Late Iron Age, at which time a pastoral landscape had become established with open ground or grassland subdivided by ditched enclosures and hedgerows. It has been possible to detail local conditions from a suite of environmental evidence captured in a series of large waterlogged pits, interpreted as watering holes for livestock. The continued exploitation of a spring accessed by these features is evident from maintenance of the watering holes during the transition to the Romano-British period. However, by the mid-Roman period the watering holes had silted up and fallen out of use.

This article presents the results of partial research on a dwelling identified within the fortified settlement of Ibăneşti (Botoşani County, Romania). The importance of the dwelling stems from the fact that it is the first habitat structure identified on the territory of this site. In terms of shape and inventory, this dwelling finds analogies in other settlements dating from the beginning of the second Iron Age. In addition, the authors highlight the most important moments in the history of research on the settlement at Ibăneşti, providing some new details about the shape and components of the defensive system.

This study focuses on understanding how archaeologists interact with and reuse 3D data during excavation, drawing on an ad-hoc experiment and a discourse analysis approach taken from socio-linguistic disciplines. The experiment, conducted during the excavation of an Iron Age ‘central place’ in Sweden, reveals the multifaceted utility of 3D models in archaeological discussions. Our analysis shows that these models function as effective tools for visualisation and measurement, and they support interpretation, decision-making, and knowledge production in the field. The results demonstrate that when appropriate tools are available for accessing and working with digital data, including 3D models, instances of reuse increase significantly, improving communication, knowledge exchange, and interpretive reasoning during excavation. These findings highlight the importance of continuing to explore how 3D models are reused within archaeological workflows, particularly to facilitate collaborative interpretation and field-based decision-making.

This study presents the results of macroscopic and microscopic examinations of 534 teeth from 49 individuals recovered from various archaeological sites in Mongolia, dating to the Bronze and Early Iron Ages. The analysis aimed to evaluate the childhood health status of ancient Mongolian populations through the assessment of enamel hypoplasia. Among the examined specimens, 58 teeth from 28 individuals exhibited linear enamel hypoplasia (LEH). The prevalence, age at occurrence, and frequency of LEH were analyzed with respect to age, sex, chronological period, and geographic region. Furthermore, the age of onset and frequency of LEH in the Mongolian sample were compared with those observed among contemporaneous populations from Houtaomuga, northern China (Late Bronze–Early Iron Age), and the Late Jomon culture of Japan. These comparative analyses provide insights into regional variations in childhood physiological stress and health conditions during the Bronze and Early Iron Ages in Northeast Asia.