Rare cross-lineage single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) states observed in high-coverage Y-chromosome datasets present a persistent challenge to conventional interpretations of lineage specificity, homoplasy, and phylogenetic exclusivity (Jobling & Tyler-Smith (Nat Rev Genet 18:485–97, 2017); Poznik (Nat Genet 48:593–99, 2016)). In particular, a focal downstream lineage within haplogroup E-CTS1454 (E-Y250637) exhibits a reproducible set of isolated SNP states canonically annotated within other haplogroups, while early-diverging sister branches within the same tripartite topology do not. These observations are difficult to reconcile with stochastic sequencing error, recombination, or classical mutagenesis models, yet do not entail collapse of higher-order haplotypic structure. Here, we propose a constraint-relaxation model in which prolonged environmental stress transiently reduces repair canalization in lineage-specific genomic architectures, expanding the space of permissible repair outcomes without invoking genetic transfer, recombination, or directed adaptation. Integrating Y-chromosome phylogenetic topology, temporal ordering of variant emergence, and archaeological–environmental context, we identify the Levantine Iron Age Anomaly (LIAA) as a historically bounded stress envelope during which E-Y250637, but not its early-diverging sister branches, remained resident in the southern Levant. We argue that extended exposure to environmental instability during this interval plausibly modulated germline repair dynamics through epigenetic and biophysical boundary conditions, enabling rare convergent repair outcomes that were subsequently stabilized and observed only after later demographic relocation. No claim is made that environmental stress specifies nucleotide identity; rather, any influence would be indirect and mediated through generalized modulation of repair pathway weighting. This framework reframes rare cross-lineage SNP observations as context-dependent convergent repair outcomes permitted by transient constraint relaxation rather than evidence of mutagenesis, horizontal transfer, or classical homoplasy. By situating repair flexibility within a temporally bounded environmental stress model, the approach provides a conservative, falsifiable explanation for delayed SNP emergence in narrowly constrained genomic systems (Siebert (Clin Epigenet 15:145, 2023); Ben-Yosef (PNAS 114:2425–30, 2017)). More broadly, the approach motivates formal investigation of how long-term environmental stress may modulate repair permissiveness in lineage-specific contexts, with implications for population genetics, ancient DNA interpretation, and epigenetic inheritance. The present framework builds on Waddington’s concept of canalization, originally formulated to describe the buffering of developmental trajectories against perturbation (Waddington (Nature 150:563–65, 1942), (London: Allen & Unwin, 1957)), and extends this logic to the regulation of DNA repair outcomes and genome stability under long-term environmental stress.

Iron Age settlements in the Salento peninsula (Southern Italy, 8th–6th century BC) underwent fundamental transformations in social organization, marked by the emergence of local elites through trade development and intense contacts with the Greek world. This study examines organic residue assemblages from 99 ceramic sherds from one key Iron Age site to clarify the role of locally produced ceramics—both coarse ware containers and Japigian matt-painted vessels—in commensal and beverage production practices. Chromatographic analyses identified a wide variety of animal and plant by-products, including fats, oils, waxes, and resin compounds. Integrated phytolith and starch analysis revealed evidence consistent with fermentation processes, particularly through the identification of fungal remains and damaged starch granules suggesting brewing activities in a subset of vessels. Matt-painted pottery forms—characterized by conical rims, funnel-shaped necks, bowls, and jugs—show distinctive use-alteration patterns and residue profiles associated with fermented beverage consumption and preparation in approximately 26% of the analyzed assemblage. Integrating organic residue analysis, experimental archaeology, and microfossil investigation suggests the central role of locally produced pottery in Iron Age commensal activities and status display, though alternative interpretations for some biomarker profiles cannot be excluded. This multiproxy approach demonstrates functional differentiation and consumption practices, refining interpretations of vessel use and providing new insights into food economies and social life during the Iron Age in southern Italy.

ABSTRACT The oasis of al‐Ḥāʾiṭ, located in Ḥāʾil Province (Saudi Arabia), has long remained understudied despite its strategic position along the eastern Ḥarrat Khaybar caravan route. A 2024 joint Saudi‐French archaeological reconnaissance revealed multi‐period occupations spanning the Neolithic to the Islamic era, including probable Bronze Age settlements and walled oasis, an Iron Age rock relief and building, traces of a potential Nabataean settlement and an Islamic caravanserai zone. These findings help to redefine the role of al‐Ḥāʾiṭ in trans‐Arabian exchange networks in the long‐term, supporting its identification with ancient Fadak/Padakku. The study underscores the need for further surveys and excavations to clarify settlement dynamics and confirm these significant but preliminary results.

ABSTRACT The treatment of the dead body is a highly social phenomenon, rooted in cultural conventions. Choices in mortuary rites include inhumation, cremation, and excarnation, along with secondary manipulation before or after burial. In the Carpathian Basin between 1600 and 700 b.c., people employed diverse choices in peri- and post-mortem treatment of human remains. Beginning by defining local cremation conventions, including fragmentation of the body, we next present new data to reconstruct excarnation and inhumation practices. These display similar patterns of peri- and post-mortem manipulation in both cemetery and settlement contexts, demonstrating intersections between rites. Engagement with human bones in Late Bronze and Early Iron Age contexts is shown to have been ubiquitous and encompass varying states of integrity, revealing distinct practices surrounding their use or reuse. This shows that human remains, as material culture, played myriad roles in social discourses, ranging from place-making to ancestor reverence to domination of others.

ABSTRACT This paper presents the results of the first archaeological investigation at Andhūr (DMa0610), an inland site in the Wādī Andhūr oasis, Dhofar, southern Oman. Excavations revealed a multi‐phase occupation dated to the second part of the first century BCE , centred on a two‐storey building constructed with the ‘sandwich’ masonry technique known from Sumhuram. Architectural and environmental evidence suggest that Andhūr served as a small Hadrami outpost strategically placed near permanent water sources and frankincense‐producing areas on the Nejd plateau. The recovery of edible marine shells points to regular contacts between the coast and the interior. Four inscriptions link Andhūr to wider South Arabian networks and reflect forms of exchange, of people and goods, extending beyond maritime trade. The site offers new insight into Hadrami inland strategies and their engagement with Dhofari populations, helping to define more clearly the complex system of cultural interactions that characterised Dhofar during the Late Iron Age.

Studies of the Voitsekhivka cemetery, located on the left bank of the Sluch River middle region in Eastern Volyn, started in 1924, continued in 1948–1949, and renewed by the Fastiv Archaeological Expedition in 2011–2013. Most of the excavated barrows are dated from the middle to the third quarters of the 2nd millennium BC, and refer to the classical horizons of the Komariv culture of the Trzciniec cultural circle. Three kurgan-like eminence were studied in 2013 at different places of the site, containing materials from the Late Bronze Age to the Early Iron Age. One mound was a ritual assemblage, possibly a cenotaph; the other two were natural hills into which the objects of the indicated periods were sunk. The research in 2013 significantly extended the chronological range of the site’s existence, and also allowed considering the question of using landscape features when performing ritual activities on the cemetery. The authors also analyse a set of metal items of the Late Bronze Age discovered in 2013 by the Fastiv Archaeological Expedition in the ploughed layer of the barrow group no. 6 of the Voitsekhivka cemetery. The collection includes 31 items, mostly fragmented. These are seven knives, five sickles, foursocketed axes, three knives-daggers, a fragment of a sword blade, four spearheads, a cheekpiece, a fragment of a pin-wand of a Hordiivka type, two bracelets, a fragment of a rod, two bronze ingots. Finds can be dated preliminary to the BrD–HaA period. It cannot be excluded that at least some of the finds were part of a plowed-up hoard/hoards buried at the cemetery’s territory. All metal finds of the Late Bronze Age can be divided into two groups of different sizes. The first group (“import”) includes single-edged knives, sickles, celts, double-edged daggers, a fragment of a sword blade, spearheads, and bracelets. All these products find many analogies in the archaeological cultures of the Carpathian-Danube basin. The second group of finds (“autochthonous”) is represented by items associated with local cultures of the Northern Black Sea region. These include a rod-shaped three-hole cheekpiece and a fragment of a Hordiivka-type pin-wand, as well as a metal rod (a bracelet blank?) and metal ingots.

Excavations at the site of Sheikh Ḥilu in Ḥadera revealed the remains of a possible manor house or farm dating from the Crusader period. The partially exposed two-phase complex is a rare example of a settlement from this period in the Sharon plain. Careful planning and relatively high construction quality attest to its significance; however, apart from its solid architecture, there is no evidence of fortification. The site underwent a non-violent abandonment at the end of the Crusader period, after which it was temporarily settled by squatters. In the late Ottoman period and the early twentieth century, this was the site of the Muslim village of Sheikh Ḥilu, the cemetery of which remains fairly intact adjacent to the site.

Correction: Determination of Gray Cast Iron Age Strengthening by Nondestructive Methods: Effect of Alloying Elements

ABSTRACT Archaeomalacological evidence offers important insights into dietary habits, shell use, human-environment dynamics, climate variability, and broader aspects of cultural behaviour. In this study, an extensive collection of molluscan remains from Muweilah, an Iron Age II (1000-600BC) site in the United Arab Emirates, were examined with respect to their taxonomy, taphonomy, and environment of origin. The analysis includes a total of 40,668 individuals from 54 taxa, which are dominated by the gastropods Terebralia palustris and Hexaplex kuesterianus and the bivalves Marcia cordata and Ostreoidea sp. Most specimens originate from mangrove and littoral environments and show a high degree of taphonomic alterations including fragmentation, ablation, superficial cracks, surface abrasion and different states of preservation with respect to colouration and shininess. These taphonomic features are consistent with the dominant taxa being used for sustenance, possibly supplemented by bivalves such as Anadara and Pinctada. The variation in taphonomic patterns likely reflects differences in processing as well as a species-specific cooking methods. Further remains, including Cypraea sp., Conus sp., and Strombidae sp., were likely collected for use as ornaments or utensils. Some specimens appear to have served as flooring material, while others, gathered as by-catch or through beach collection, may have been repurposed as tools.

Malocclusion is a condition characterized by misalignment of the teeth and jaws that affects oral function and oral health. Although extensively studied in modern contexts, its patterns in historical populations remain poorly characterized. A systematic review was conducted using three databases to collect relevant articles through a systematic search, following PRISMA guidelines on the prevalence of malocclusion in the prehistoric, Iron Age, Medieval, and Bronze Ages. Risk bias assessment was done using the Newcastle-Ottawa scale. A total of 831 initially identified records, only eight studies met the criteria for final inclusion. The result shows a different pattern of malocclusion across different populations. The observed variations underscore the influence of genetic and environmental factors on malocclusion through different eras, warranting further bioarchaeological studies to enhance understanding of malocclusion trends across historical populations.

The eastern Tianshan range in Xinjiang, serving as a crucial link between the East and the West, acts as an important channel for the eastward spread of East Asian millet and painted pottery, as well as the westward diffusion of West Asian wheat and barley, bronze wares, and livestock. However, due to the scarcity of ancient genomic data, the history of population interaction and admixture in this region remains unclear. We sequenced 23 ancient individuals from 12 archaeological sites from the Bronze Age to historical periods in Xinjiang. We identified intraregional population interactions, demonstrating that an indigenous local ancestry, represented by Tarim_EMBA1, spread to the Tianshan and persisted into the historical period. The incoming East Asian millet farmers, along with Western Steppe herders characterized by Afanasievo, contributed to the formation of the eastern Tianshan populations during the Iron Age, which is consistent with archaeological findings of painted pottery and pastoral subsistence in this area. The genetic affinity to East Asian millet farmers in the eastern Tianshan increased over time, likely reflecting geographic proximity and geopolitical changes. In contrast, in line with archaeological observations, the Iron Age individuals in the western Tianshan derived their Steppe-related ancestry from populations associated with the Andronovo culture. Our results illustrated the interplay between genetics and culture in the eastern Tianshan.

Early Iron Age horse exploitation in Thrace (Bulgaria) inferred from dental attrition and vertebral pathology.

ABSTRACT This study presents new evidence for the early use of lime mortar during the Early Iron Age at the Piscina Torta site (Ostia, Italy), situated on the earliest Holocene beach ridges in the southern Tiber delta. The site, which was earlier described as a briquetage site, dates from between the late 8th and 6th century BCE and consists of a large complex of dumps, holding kilns and working floors. Lime mortar‐like materials were abundantly present in these dumps and used in the construction of some kilns and working floors. To assess their nature, truly lime‐based mortars or natural indurated marl, we performed petrographic and geochemical analyses on these materials, and on lime mortars experimentally produced using local marl from the Piscina Torta palaeochannel, which is the only nearby source of high‐carbonate sediment in this part of the Tiber delta. The experiments showed that the marl begins to calcine effectively above 800°C, developing characteristic lime mortar features between 900°C and 1100°C. Some archaeological materials indeed showed diagnostic microscopic features of lime mortar, including micritic binder, lime lumps, reaction rims and lack of birefringence, demonstrating that the marl had undergone the complete lime cycle (calcination, slaking and carbonation). Moreover, the analyses confirmed the origin of the archaeological mortar‐like materials, being these marls. Our study provides the first evidence to date for the intentional production and use of lime mortar in central Italy, predating the widespread use of this technology in the Roman world. The results also imply that the Piscina Torta site was a multifunctional production site with a variety of kilns and activities, underscoring the technological sophistication and multipurpose nature of the site.

Through an integrated geoarchaeological and palaeoenvironmental approach, we explored the origin, evolution, and anthropogenic modification of the Piscina Torta, a palaeochannel running across a beach ridge complex in the southern Tiber delta, from the inland Ostia palaeolagoon towards the sea. This channel was assumed to have played an important role in the activities at the connected Early Iron Age archaeological site of Piscina Torta, known for its salt production by briquetage. The research combines a range of methods and techniques: transect corings, high-resolution LiDAR mapping, electrical resistivity tomography (ERT), sedimentological and granulometric analyses, microfossil and plant macroremain studies, and AMS radiocarbon dating. These revealed that the base of the channel is in marine sands that form part of the early beach ridges in this area. Its fill consists of 1) highly calcareous marls that were deposited in a fresh water lake/lagoon, with a water level that ultimately reached to at least 1 m a.s.l. and dates from before the period in which the site was occupied (late 8th BCE); 2) peats formed over a long period (5th century BCE till modern times) and in an increasingly aquatic environment after the site was abandoned; 3) anthropogenically reworked sediments of modern age, containing abundant ancient ceramic fragments, likely consisting of surface materials, dumped to improve the drainage and trafficability of the area. During the late 8th to 6th century BCE, the marls in the central part of the channel were excavated, creating an anthropogenic channel (canal), which potentially had a connection with the sea in its lower, most seaward section of which the stratigraphy remained obscure, probably due to later coastal erosion. In the more inland section, which is situated within the large archaeological site, its base was distinctly above the contemporary sea level, implying that the channel/canal did not function as an open hydrological connection between the inland lagoon and the sea during the site’s occupation and more recent times. The period in which the site was occupied corresponds to significant socio-economic transformations in Central Italy and the emergence of Rome as a regional power. The study provides new insights into the interplay between coastal geomorphology, resource exploitation, and early state formation, emphasizing the role of environmental engineering in sustaining specialized production activities in dynamic coastal landscapes.

Persistent livestock management practices from the late Neolithic to the Iron Age in southwestern Shandong, China: From the perspective of stable isotopes

A tale of two regions: Cyclical human-climate interactions in the South Levant from the Chalcolithic to the Iron Age (6500–2200 BP)

The concept of “workshop” is widely used in studies of ancient craft production, yet it often relies on rigid, culturally specific criteria that are ill-suited to mobile pastoral contexts, where conventional traces of organized manufacturing activity are seldom preserved. In Northern China, interpretations have been further shaped by a perceived divide between pastoralist and agricultural communities—the former assumed to rely on domestic production and the latter linked to more complex workshop-based systems. Functional, zooarchaeological, and workflow analyses of temporally and spatially contextualized worked bones from Building IIIF1 at the Iron Age pastoral campsite of Shirenzigou, in the Eastern Tianshan, provide compelling evidence for a specialized production space associated with pastoral strategies. Beyond evidence of bone working, the combination of diverse production-related items and deposits, the structure’s unusually large size, and the absence of domestic features together suggest that IIIF1 functioned as a collective multi-craft facility, likely emerging in response to increasing regional socio-political complexity during the first millennium BCE. These findings prompt a reconsideration of the concept and defining attributes of workshops and highlight the need for more flexible models that can account for the variability of pastoralist societies.

This article explores the advanced metallurgical knowledge and technological prowess of the ancient Tamils during the Sangam period. By synthesizing evidence from classical Sangam literature—such as Tolkappiyam, Purananuru, and Akananuru—with modern archaeological findings from sites like Adichanallur, Kodumanal, and Mayiladumparai, the study demonstrates that Tamils were pioneers in metalworking. The research details the extraction and processing of various metals including gold, silver, copper, and iron, highlighting the sophisticated techniques used to create tools, weapons, and intricate jewelry. Notably, the article cites archaeological evidence dating iron usage in Tamil Nadu back to 3345 BCE, suggesting that the Tamils were among the first in the world to enter the Iron Age and master the production of high-quality steel and specialized "Beta Bronze".

ABSTRACT Thousands of burial mounds of the Sakas, Wsuns and Turks have been preserved in the vast expanse of southeastern Kazakhstan in the steppe, mountains and foothills. In ancient times, one of the spiritual centres of the nomads was formed on the territory of Almaty. There were dozens of burial mounds here, which were swallowed up by urban development over the past century. Archaeological research began in the first half of the 20th century. Archaeologists discovered new, miraculously preserved monuments. Among them, the majestic Boralday necropolis stands out. Due to its natural location, the monument has been well preserved—it was affected by urbanization, and no excavations were carried out on it. Archaeologists agreed on the need to preserve the necropolis as part of the historical landscape. In the last decade, geophysical research has been carried out on the monument. In 2015, geomagnetic scanning was carried out, and in 2024, electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) on seven elite large burial mounds. The article describes the techniques of the ERT method and presents the obtained images. For each mound, an interpretation of the research materials is given. According to certain technical and geomorphological data, these results are unique and valuable in methodological terms. Investigative techniques, such as ERT, not only provide tools for interpreting the stratigraphy and internal structures of the tumuli but also help shape conservation strategies that integrate historical knowledge with the imperatives of heritage protection. In this manner, geophysical research is interwoven with archaeology and history, yielding an integrated perspective that enhances both the technical and symbolic dimensions of these funerary monuments. The results obtained from the ERT surveys conducted on seven royal burial mounds of the Early Iron Age Boralday burial ground provide significant insights into their structural composition and post‐depositional modifications. The resistivity data allowed for the identification of both the original structural elements of the barrows and the alterations resulting from anthropogenic and natural processes. Geophysical research at the Boralday burial ground will be continued using both ERT and other methods.

An ancient mass grave reveals targeted killing of women and children in the Early Iron Age.