Iron Age Sites Research Articles

Preliminary Report on the Second Season of the Konya-Ereğli Survey (KEYAR)1 2014

The KEYAR survey project began in 2013 with the intention to fill in a gap of underinvestigated provinces of the greater Konya region. The south-eastern corner, which encloses the provinces of Karapinar, Eregli, Emirgazi and Halkapinar are investigated in this survey project. The survey focuses on the investigation of Bronze and Iron Age sites, which is a great challenge, as the area comprises different geographies, such as the fertile Konya plain, the slopes of the Bolkar Mountains, the Kara...

In the Valley of the King: Jerusalem's Rural Hinterland in the 8th-4th Centuries BCE

The author proposes that an unprecedented growth in the number of rural settlements around Jerusalem took place during the 7th century BCE and not, as has been broadly maintained, in the 8th century BCE. He also shows that the decrease in the number of sites in the transition to the Persian period is less dramatic than has previously been claimed. The author asserts that the large number of 7th century BCE sites around Jerusalem is the result of the devastation of the Shephelah wrought by Sennacherib and that a relatively large number of Iron Age sites survived into the Persian period due to the role played by Ramat Raḥel, which replaced Jerusalem as the economic and political hub of the southern highlands.

Interdisciplinary archaeological prospection, excavation and 3D documentation exemplified through the investigation of a burial at the Iron Age settlement site of Uppåkra in Sweden

ABSTRACTThis paper presents the archaeological prospection, excavation and digital three‐dimensional documentation of a previously unknown neolithic grave, presumably late neolithic, at the outstanding Iron Age site of Uppåkra in southern Sweden, and exemplifies a multidisciplinary approach to modern archaeological fieldwork. In the framework of a large‐scale archaeological prospection pilot study conducted at the archaeological site of Uppåkra using remote sensing and large‐scale near‐surface geophysical prospection methods a peculiar circular structure was discovered and mapped using both manual and motorized high‐resolution ground‐penetrating radar (GPR) measurements. The structure, consisting of a ring ditch of ca. 10 m diameter, encloses an east–west oriented strongly reflecting rectangular body in the centre, which therefore was interpreted as being caused by the buried remains of a prehistoric barrow. Subsequent archaeological excavation was conducted across this structure in order to determine the exact cause of the GPR anomaly. This excavation resulted in detailed confirmation of the archaeological prospection results as well as in the discovery of dateable finds. The excavation was documented using the latest image‐based three‐dimensional modelling techniques. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Settlement Oscillations in the Negev Highlands Revisited: The Impact of Microarchaeological Methods

Microarchaeological methods, especially those focused on geoarchaeology and radiocarbon dating, have revolutionized the manner in which the Iron Age settlement peak in the Negev Highlands is interpreted. We review here results from field and laboratory studies conducted at two Iron Age sites (Atar Haroa and Nahal Boqer) compared to one Byzantine/Early Islamic site (Wadi el-Mustayer)—all located near Sede Boqer. We present our methodology, which is based on small-scale but detailed excavations, study of sediments, and identification of livestock dung remains and their utility as indicators of past subsistence practices. To this we add meticulous 14C dating, ceramic petrography, and identification of botanic and zoological remains. We conclude that subsistence during the Iron Age included tending livestock but did not include agriculture. We further propose that the long-distance trade of copper from the Arabah Valley under Egyptian auspices and possibly the trading of cinnamon, dates, and other Arabian/Indian commodities were the driving force in the initiation (and later decline) of the Iron Age settlement system. We hypothesize that the agricultural settlement peak during the Byzantine/Early Islamic period was also influenced by an imperial power from outside of the Negev and that large-scale agriculture was enabled due to the adoption of new agricultural techniques, including terracing of ephemeral streams along with water diversion systems and possibly water storage facilities such as advanced cisterns. Future studies are expected to shed additional light on the complexity of settlement oscillations in the Negev Highlands region in key periods such as the Early and Intermediate Bronze Ages.

Mozah, Nephtoah and royal estates in the Jerusalem highlands

The article deals with three related issues. We first revisit the question of identification of biblical Mozah and assert that it cannot be placed at Tel Moza (Qaluniya); rather, it should be located in one of the Iron Age sites further to the north, which are related to the Gibeon plateau. We then suggest identifying Tel Moza (Qaluniya) with biblical Nephtoah. Finally we discuss the long-term phenomenon of royal estates in the Jerusalem highlands.

Crops and wild plants from early iron age Kalakaca, northern Serbia: Comparing old and new archaeobotanical data

The ?old? archaeobotanical analysis of charred plant remains hand-picked in the 1970?s from several pit-features at Early Iron Age Kalakaca in Vojvodina, northern Serbia was conducted by Willem van Zeist and published by Predrag Medovic. This work provided first information on the archaeobotany of the site and the plant material deposited in the semi- or fully-subterranean structures whose function has remained more-or-less enigmatic. These features were in the past filled with a mass of fragments of, primarily, large ceramic vessels, chunks of (burnt) daub, large quantities of animal bone, and burnt plant matter. The ?new? archaeobotanical work at Kalakaca included sampling and flotation in the field, and subsequent analysis of a fraction of the samples. The paper explores the composition of the two datasets from Kalakaca, separately and combined; it identifies the spectra of crop and wild plants and discusses the quantitative representation of the crops. The paper concludes by broadly comparing the integrated crop record from this site with the crop datasets from few other Early Iron Age sites in Serbia in order to get a preliminary picture on the choice of cultivated crops and possible preferences for certain crop types.

Two new inscribed Storm-god stelae from Arsuz (İskenderun): ARSUZ 1 and 2

AbstractIn 2007 two stelae, each bearing figures of the Storm-god leading a ruler and a duplicate Hieroglyphic Luwian text, were discovered at Uluçınar (formerly Arsuz), on the Turkish coast south of Iskenderun. The inscription is the work of a Suppiluliuma, son of Manana, king of the land of Walastin, now understood as the Luwian designation of the Amuq plain with its capital at the Iron Age site of Tell Tayinat. The stelae, probably dating to the later tenth century BC, record the successful reign of the ruler and his happy relations with the Storm-god. Historically important is a passage which describes this Amuq king's victory over the Cilician plain, the city of Adana and the land of Hiyawa.

Short Contribution: Severe Enamel Defects and Malformations of Canines in Pre-Historic and Historic Domestic Pigs from Bohemia

In this paper four cases of severe enamel and dentine defects in the upper canines of male domestic pigs (Sus scrofa f. domestica) from the Iron Age and medieval sites in Bohemia (Czech Republic) are presented. Such severe defects observed in the osteoarchaeological record are a fairly rare condition. They are in all likelihood the result of intra and extra alveolar traumas. In two cases the growing area was completely or partially divided, probably due to a traumatic incidence. The origin of the traumatic insults could be intra- or inter-species fights, search for food or other accidents. Human maltreatment could also not be excluded. A twisted canine was observed in one case. A description of an anomaly on one lower female pig canine is also included.

Properties of ancient deeply transformed man-made soils (cultural layers) and their advances to classification by the example of Early Iron Age sites in Moscow Region

The Central part of European Russia has been inhabited for several thousands of years, its population being rather large in number. By way of example, we consider the Dyakovo archeological culture dated to the Early Iron Age. Numerous sites and settlements attributed to that culture are noted for the presence of typical Anthrosols and Technosols — deeply transformed man-made soils (cultural layers).In the course of the work we investigated thoroughly two soils related to settlements of the Early Iron Age. Archeological excavations yielded numerous artifacts in situ; this proves that the sites have been inhabited in the past, though abandoned long since. The cultural layers, however, have not been buried under later sediments. Far from it, they stayed exposed and subjected to transformations by soil-forming processes. At present the sites are not in any use and are mostly overgrown with modern vegetation. Aside from the morphological description, chemical analyses of the soils at the archeological sites have been performed, a proportion of organic and inorganic matter, total phosphorus, pH being defined. It should be noted that no typical zonal soils have been found at the sites, in spite of the zonal vegetation overgrowing the areas. Instead, there appeared soils of a peculiar kind showing specific properties. When studying them, the background soils were used as a reference.So, it seems that the time lapse between the Early Iron Age and the present days — a millennium and a half — was insufficient for a complete transformation of the man-made soils (cultural layers). It is rather difficult to choose a proper name of those soils. The term “Technosol” is hardly applicable, as there are no human settlements there at present. Neither can the soils be considered as “natural”, because they are radically different from the latter in characteristics and contain artificial materials in abundance.

Vajilla broncínea tardorrepublicana en El Llano de la Horca (Santorcaz, Madrid)

Recent progress made researching Second Iron Age sites in central Iberian Peninsula shows revealing data on different Late Roman Republic materials from Italy. The discovery of several bronze vessels at El Llano de la Horca might contribute important information regarding the ongoing research on imported materials in the Southern Submeseta.

Labour, industry and production in megalithic period (South Indian Iron Age): Nomadic, semi settled group or settled group?

There are above 1933 Megalithic Iron Age sites across south India; they include burial sites, habitation sites, habitation cum burial sites, Iron Age painting sites, isolated iron smelting localities near a habitation or burial. With the approach of economic archeology and sociotechnic perspective analyzing ceramics, metallurgy, burial monument (builder) and subsistent evidence (considering them as industries) that are found in the Megalithic burials as grave furnishers (The Material Archives Preserved in the Burial Monuments) from the background of Labour, Production and Industry that has economic imprints can be discussed on whether the Megalithic folks were nomadic, semi-settled or settled. This paper is an attempt to make a rough computation on the quantity of output that this culture might have in micro or in macro scale. This helps in understanding two aspects; one: whether they were nomadic, semisettled or settled at one location; two: diffusion versus indigenous development.

Conspicuous Consumption and Tribute: Assyrian Glazed Ceramic Bottles at Khirbat al-Mudayna ath-Thamad

Assyrian control of small kingdoms in the southern Levant during the Iron Age opened new trade routes and had an effect on the patterns of exchange. This exchange involved tribute as well as trade. The result for small polities such as Moab was the appearance in small numbers of high-status goods with a foreign origin, along with imitations of such goods produced closer to home. At the Iron Age site of Khirbat al-Mudayna on Wadi ath-Thamad (Mudayna Thamad), excavation exposed a walled town consisting of a series of industrial buildings (B200–210), a compact domestic area (B300–312) near the North Gate (B100), and a sprawling domestic area at the south end of the mound, Complex 400 (B400–408). It is in this complex that the greatest number of high-status and exotic objects were located. The elite character of this complex was first recognized in 2004 with the discovery of a Middle Bronze Age “Anra” scarab in what was otherwise a secure Iron Age II context. More recent finds include two glazed ceramic bottl...

Beyond Elites: Reassessing Irish Iron Age Society

SummaryThe past two decades have seen an expansion of archaeological activity on the island of Ireland that has transformed our knowledge and understanding of most periods in Irish prehistory and history. However, Iron Age sites and artefacts remain rare finds and are often ephemeral, particularly in the case of settlements. It is now clear that the peculiarly sparse record of the Irish Iron Age is genuinely representative of the surviving archaeology. It is also clear that this evidence does not fit the traditional ‘Celtic’ picture of warrior elites, druids and tribal hierarchies imported from other regions and later insular texts. This paper proposes an alternative model for the Irish Iron Age of the first millennium BC, one that centres on nomadism and heterarchy.

Pearl Millet and Other Plant Remains from the Early Iron Age Site of Boso-Njafo (Inner Congo Basin, Democratic Republic of the Congo)

This article is devoted to an analysis of plant remains from the Early Iron Age site of Boso-Njafo on the Lulonga River (Democratic Republic of the Congo). They were excavated in the context of archaeological research in 1985 but—due to unfavorable circumstances—could not be analyzed at that time. The site belongs to the Imbonga group, the earliest ceramic style group to date in the Inner Congo Basin. The archaeological context of the botanical remains is dated to the first millennium cal bc. The most salient fact concerning the plant remains is the evidence of pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum). A correlation between cultivation of this crop, that is primarily adapted to semi-arid environments, with the climatic changes taking place in the second and first millennium cal bc is discussed. However, regional palaeoecological proxy data for the Inner Congo Basin are still missing. Further plant species present in Boso-Njafo include trees with edible fruits like Musanga cecropioides, Raphia, and Elaeis guineensis, Afromomum sp., and some grasses and herbs exploitable as leafy vegetables. They indicate a forest environment including swamps and secondary Guineo-Congolian forests as well as disturbed ruderal vegetation.

A ‘SMALL TOWN’ DISCOVERED TWICE: A FORGOTTEN REPORT OF MAJOR H. H. KITCHENER

This paper revisits the contribution of the Palestine Exploration Fund (PEF) to the study of the ancient copper mines of Faynan, Jordan. It reveals that it was a PEF expedition that first reported smelting remains in the northern part of the Faynan region, and demonstrates that the reported remains are the Iron Age site of Khirbat al-Jariya.

A Late Iron Age and Romano-British Site at Gale Common, North Yorkshire

A late Iron Age to late Romano-British rural landscape centred on two core occupation areas was identified. The western settlement, in the form of a nucleated Iron Age farmstead, was inhabited in the first century bc, while the eastern core was occupied from the late first century ad. Settlement was predominantly at a basic rural level, shifting eastwards during the later second century ad to a less regular settlement with a rectilinear field system. The settlement became more Romanised, incorporating in the middle of the fourth century ad a rectangular timber building and proportions of pottery types more usually associated with villas. The settlement appears to either move, contract, or begin to dissipate in the later fourth century ad.

MYTHS, GENDER, BIRDS, BEADS: A READING OF IRON AGE HILL SITES IN INTERIOR SOUTHERN AFRICA

ABSTRACTHomologous origin myths concerning the Tsodilo Hills in north-western Botswana, Polombwe hill at the southern tip of Lake Tanganyika in Zambia and Kaphiri-Ntiwa hill in northern Malawi are examined. Parallels are drawn between the myths, where, in the process of creation, a primal pair in undifferentiated space and time passes through a series of liminal states, thereby bringing structure to the landscape and legitimacy to society in Iron Age Central and Southern Africa. These myths narrate the instituting of social legitimacy in their respective societies based on a resolution of the inherent contradiction between the concepts of authority and power, lineage and land. The structure of rights to possession of land is examined, and the text considers the role of sumptuary goods such as glass beads and metonymic signifiers such as birds within this structure. This study examines the prominence of hilltops as the residence of paranormal power and its association with human authority, and relates this to the archaeological interpretation of the Iron Age site Nqoma (Tsodilo Hills); this is compared with Bosutswe (eastern Botswana), Mapungubwe (Shashe-Limpopo basin), and the Shona Mwari myth recorded by Frobenius as used by Huffman in his analysis of Great Zimbabwe.

Dendrochronological analyses of wood samples from a Late Bronze to early Iron Age site at Lake Luokesa, Lithuania

Tree rings of 184 archaeological wood samples from two Late Bronze to early Iron Age lake sites at Lake Luokesa (Luokesai ežeras), Lithuania, Moletai district, were analyzed. Despite severe difficulties with synchronization, Pinus (pine), Quercus (oak) and Alnus (alder) yielded some cross-datable series. The general picture is that the settlers chose small trees as timber, which they used in their natural round shape. The trees did not grow in homogeneous even-aged stands, but show very different ages and growth levels. Despite the generally low numbers of tree rings in the individual samples, the strong archaeological framework allowed cross-dating of some series and the building of chronologies for single structures. Based on these attempts, a 90 year long first floating chronology of the settlement structures is presented. Luokesa Site 2 (L2) was mainly built within the relative year 53. Luokesa Site 1 (L1) was certainly in use from the relative year 74 onwards. All fences at L1 show their main building activity in the relative year 81, four years after the main building activities in the village itself. It can be concluded that the settlement L1 was in use for at least 16 years. Because of the lack of a standard dendrochronological curve for the Baltic region, wiggle-matching was applied to obtain an absolute date for both settlements. The data clearly show that all samples relate to the Late Bronze–early Iron Age. The period where all wiggle matching results overlap is the period between 625 and 535 bc (the 2σ ranges are given). Based on the dating, duration and timber characteristics of the occupation, comparisons with Polish early Iron Age sites are made, which indicate a close resemblance in terms of wood use and settlement concept.

Protecting the Invisible: Site-Management Planning at Small Archaeological Sites in al-Ain, Abu Dhabi

Protection, conservation, and site-management planning are normally financed and conducted on major archaeological sites only, where there are expectations for visitor access and economic returns. Many smaller sites with lesser visible remains are then virtually abandoned, despite the value of their physical remains and archaeological, historical, and scientific potential.A pilot project by Abu Dhabi Authority for Culture and Heritage (now Abu Dhabi Tourism and Culture Authority) was conducted at Rumeilah, an Iron Age site excavated over the past forty-five years. The project consisted of a full-scale site-management planning process including documentation and assessment of the site conditions and of its administrative context to demonstrate the benefits of applying value and community-based site-management planning processes to ‘invisible’ heritage. The process resulted in the development of a management plan which identifies continued explorations at the site and in the involvement of local schools and universities the activities that will be able to sustain its long-term preservation.

Microfossil-determined provenance of clay building materials at Burrough Hill Iron Age hill fort, Leicestershire, England

The Iron Age hill fort at Burrough Hill, Leicestershire, eastern England, lies in a lowland landscape of Mesozoic sedimentary rocks comprising mudstones with thin limestone units, sandstones and ironstones, which are blanketed by Pleistocene till. During the late Iron Age the hill fort was an important central place; permanent occupation probably began in Early–Middle Iron Age and continued into the Roman period. A variety of materials in archaeological contexts from the site, including clay rampart bonding and the clay linings of storage pits and floors, are found to yield characteristically mixed microfossil assemblages of Early to Late Jurassic ostracods and foraminifera, together with foraminifera from the Late Cretaceous. These provide a unique microfossil signature that indicate provenance from the local till. Microfossils can also be recovered from Middle to Late Iron Age potsherds at Burrough Hill, and these too suggest a local glacial source for the clay. Our analysis demonstrates the power of microfossils to provenance clay materials used for construction and manufactures at an Iron Age site, where a detailed baseline understanding of the local geology is firmly established.