Iron Age Sites Research Articles

Feasting, Phoenician Trade and Dynamics of Social Change in Northeastern Iberia

The archaeological study of feasting practices has proved to be one of the most fruitful lines of research in the social interpretation of the Mediterranean protohistoric record. The focus has been particularly effective for assessing the development of socio-political complexity and the evolution of socialization strategies that characterize many small-scale societies. In seeking to provide a similar assessment, this study analyses a set of ceramic tableware recovered from the early Iron Age site (seventh to sixth centuries BC) of Sant Jaume (Alcanar, Catalonia) and its associated domestic spaces and architectonic structures. Drawing on the postulates of commensality studies, we examine the functional and symbolic characteristics of these artefacts and the social practices linked to them.

Microscopic study on some Iron Age bronze objects from Western Iran

A microscopic study on ancient metals was established to identify chemical composition and microstructure of archaeological tin bronze objects. For this purpose, ten small bronze pieces from Baba Jilan Iron Age site, western Iran, were selected and studied by optical microscopy (OM) and scanning electron microscopy–energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM–EDS) methods. The results showed that all objects were made of variable tin containing binary copper-tin alloy. It may be related to the application of an uncontrolled procedure to make bronze alloy. In some samples, lead and arsenic are detected as major elements, but they can be considered rather as impurities from the original ores. Different microstructural features such as elongated Cu–S inclusions as well as Pb globules are visible in the bronze matrix. Based on the metallographic examination, the bronze pieces are shaped by cycles of cold-working and annealing. The microstructure of Baba Jilan bronze objects is similar to other Iron Age bronze artefacts from different regions of Iran. In fact, process of bronze production in the Iron Age of Iran was to produce bronze alloy with different amounts of tin and without any third alloying element, using copper sulphidic or a mixture of copper sulphidic and oxidic ores to smelting copper, and applying working and heat treatment to shape and manufacture thin sheet objects.

Investigation on corrosion stratigraphy and morphology in some Iron Age bronze alloys vessels by OM, XRD and SEM–EDS methods

The recently study of the corrosion in some bronze artefacts from the Sangtarashan Iron Age site, western Iran, was established to identify corrosion morphology and mechanism in these objects. The corrosion layers in 22 samples were studied by optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy–energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction methods. The results showed that a thin corrosion crust has formed on the surface of bronzes with a triple-layer structure, including two internal and one external corrosion layers. The formation of these layers is due to copper leaching from the bronze surface. The internal corrosion part has been a compact, tin-rich corrosion/oxidation product (noble patina) with some evidences from original metallurgical aspects of the bronze as well as a very thin layer beneath the tin-rich layer. External corrosion products have been identified as basic copper carbonates, malachite and azurite. Based on the results, the corrosion morphology in the Sangtarashan Iron Age bronzes is due to long-term burial in an appropriate environment in a moderately corrosive soil. Although it is the first time to investigate Iron Age bronzes from Iran, this corrosion morphology is partially similar to type I corrosion morphology observed in archaeological bronze objects; nevertheless, some deviations are visible in comparison with previously established patterns.

Geologic provenience analysis of agate and carnelian beads using laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS): A case study from Iron Age Cambodia and Thailand

Agate and carnelian beads, imported from South Asia, were widely exchanged in Southeast Asia during the Iron Age period (500BCE–500CE). Recent studies have identified changes in bead types and manufacturing methods over time, as well as evidence for possible local production. In order to understand the broader implications of these developments, geochemical analysis using laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) was undertaken on 73 beads from 10 Iron Age sites in Cambodia and Thailand and 64 geologic samples from four sites in India, Iran, and Thailand. The results show that many of the beads were produced from raw material derived from the Deccan Traps, India and that there is not yet strong evidence for bead production using a Southeast Asian source. Secondly, we find that there is not yet clear evidence for a change in the different geologic sources used to produce beads over time. This study adds to the growing body of literature highlighting the utility of LA-ICP-MS in differentiating and assigning provenience to agate/carnelian and other silicates.

Iron Age Transformations at Mmadipudi Hill, Botswana: Identifying Spatial Organization Through Electromagnetic Induction Survey

Mmadipudi Hill (CE 550–1200) is an Iron Age site in east-central Botswana approximately 3 km west of Bosutswe, a major Iron Age trade center at the eastern edge of the Kalahari Desert. A 5,000-m2 electromagnetic induction (EMI) survey conducted in 2011 revealed a cattle post arranged in the Central Cattle Pattern, including a central animal kraal with at least three clusters of houses flanking the eastern edge. A test trench confirmed the presence of a Taukome daga structure, possibly a house, 100–150 cm in depth. The EMI survey is one of, if not the first, archaeogeophysical surveys conducted in Botswana. It has proven invaluable as a means to understand the settlement organization and to pinpoint excavations to gain a more detailed understanding of the material culture. The perspective it offered on thorn brush fencing would not have been possible through excavation alone. Although small in scope, the test excavation yielded Taukome and Toutswe artifacts related to the larger sets of issues the Bosutswe region faced as Indian Ocean trade transformed the local political economy. The nature of the relationships between Bosutswe and its surrounding communities likely evolved due to the rise of a prestige goods economy, growing inequality, and environmental degradation around CE 1200. The occupation at Mmadipudi Hill would have immediately preceded these changes. By determining the spatial organization of Mmadipudi Hill, this article begins a crucial first step towards exploring what the local settlement pattern looked like prior to CE 1200 and understanding what the relationships among sites may have been.

New evidence for diverse secondary burial practices in Iron Age Britain: A histological case study

Iron Age (c. 700 BC–43AD) funerary practice has long been a focus of debate in British archaeology. Formal cemeteries are rare and in central-southern Britain human remains are often unearthed in unusual configurations. They are frequently recovered as isolated fragments, partially articulated body parts or complete skeletons in atypical contexts, often storage pits. In recent years, taphonomic analysis of remains has been more frequently employed to elucidate depositional practice (e.g. Madgwick, 2008, 2010; Redfern, 2008). This has enhanced our understanding of modes of treatment and has contributed much-needed primary data to the discussion. However, only macroscopic taphonomic analysis has been undertaken and equifinality (i.e. different processes producing the same end result) remains a substantial obstacle to interpretation. This research explores the potential of novel microscopic (histological) methods of taphonomic analysis for providing greater detail on the treatment of human remains in Iron Age Britain. Twenty human bones from two Iron Age sites: Danebury and Suddern Farm, in Hampshire, central-southern Britain were examined and assessed using thin section light microscopy combined with the Oxford Histological Index (OHI). Results suggest that diverse mortuary rites were practised and that different configurations of remains were subject to prescribed, varied treatment, rather than resulting from different stages of the same process. Practices that may be responsible for these patterns include exhumation followed by selective removal of elements and sheltered exposure prior to final burial. Only one sample provided evidence for excarnation, a practice that has been widely cited as a potential majority rite in Iron Age Britain.

Cassibile revisited: rock-cut monuments and the configuration of Late Bronze Age and Iron Age sites in southeast Sicily

ZusammenfassungDie prähistorische Nekropole von Cassibile im Südosten der Insel Sizilien gilt als bedeutender regionaler Fundort für die späte Bronze- und Eisenzeit Italiens (ca. 1300 bis 700 v. Chr.). Die Region wird allgemein als ein wichtiges Bevölkerungszentrum und Sitz einer Herrschaft angesehen, die noch vor der griechischen Kolonisation im 8. Jh. v. Chr. einen prägenden Einfluss auf umfangreiche Gebiete ausübte. Bekannt ist der Fundplatz vor allem aufgrund der in den Jahren 1898 und 1927 von Paolo Orsi durchgeführten Ausgrabungen und der weit mehr als 1000 in den Fels gehauene Grabkammern, die sich über eine Fläche von etwa 6 km

First Radiocarbon Chronology for the Early Iron Age Sites of Central Kazakhstan (Tasmola Culture and Korgantas Period)

AbstractWe present the first radiocarbon dates of Early Iron Age sites of central Kazakhstan (in total, 24 dates for 16 recently excavated sites). Archaeologically, the sites have been attributed to the Tasmola culture of the Saka period and later Korgantas phase of the early Hun period. The new accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) 14C dates suggest that the majority of analyzed Tasmola sites belong to the beginning of the 8th–5th century cal BC, while Korgantas dates to the 4th–2nd century cal BC. This corresponds with the latest archaeological data for the region; however, it is somewhat contrary to the traditional perception of the chronology of the Scythian period in central Kazakhstan. The new dates suggest the beginning of the Early Scythian period in the region in at least the late 9th or 8th century BC rather than 7th century BC according to the traditional approach.

Geoarchaeological Investigation at the Intermediate Bronze Age Negev Highlands Site of Mashabe Sade

Massive settlement activity characterizes the arid Negev Highlands during the Intermediate Bronze Age (ca. 2500–1950 BCE). However, the underlying subsistence basis of this population is poorly understood. Recent microarchaeological work at Iron Age sites in the Negev Highlands has shown the potential for recovering direct evidence for subsistence practices through analysis of the microscopic plant remains in degraded animal dung. Following these methods, this paper reports new macro- and micro-archaeological results of two sites near Mashabe Sade: a central Intermediate Bronze Age site, and for comparison, an ephemeral site in the immediate vicinity. At the central site, dated to the Intermediate Bronze Age by pottery and Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL), evidence is absent for any sort of food production. In contrast, identification of ancient livestock dung at the ephemeral site suggests that it was sustained by animal husbandry— yet the OSL results suggest these degraded dung deposits date to the Iron Age. Taken together, the Intermediate Bronze Age results from Mashabe Sade bolster arguments suggesting that central sites were supported mainly by trade and other alternative subsistence practices.

Despre temple, hambare şi arheologia ritualului / About Temples, Granaries and the Archaeology of Ritual

This text is a response to a paper published by C. H. Opreanu in the previous issue of this periodical (Analele Banatului 23, 2015). The mentioned author is reevaluating archaeological data from earlier excavations in the Dacian fortresses from the Orăștie Mountains, especially regarding the ashlar masonry of the so called “murus Dacicus” and the complex stone and timber structures – the specific Dacian temples (1st century BC – 1st century AD).First, his critical approach seeks to change the terminology referring to the denomination of the abovementioned building technique used to erect the ramparts of the indigenous fortresses (Costești, Blidaru, Piatra Roșie, Căpalna, Bănița, Sarmizegetusa Regia, etc.), arguing that it obviously bears the mark of Greek architects and that the local (Dacian) contribution is inexistent. He is emphasizing that the use of this expression is misleading, exaggerating the importance of the indigenous civilization.In fact, nobody denied the Greek influence in the matter of the mentioned architecture of the fortresses (the specific masonry and the details of the plans), and the present paper shows that the “murus Dacicus” concept is a modern terminological construct (not mentioned by any ancient textual source), an artificial convention invented by the archaeologists which were excavating the Dacian Late Iron Age monuments, after the WW II, in order to identify this particular type of structure found in the Orăștie Mountains and to associate it with the local civilization. The expression was widely adopted and used in the Romanian archaeology ever since, so it would be difficult to eliminate it. As it is the case of “murus Gallicus” (which is a generic label designating various structures of earth, stone and timber ramparts), this term defines a few variants of the original prototype (Hellenistic masonry), which were identified on the sites from the Orăștie Mountains. The best solution would be to assume and explain the conventional nature of the expression, if it cannot be ruled out right away.The second debated issue is specific mainly to the archaeology of ritual, with an emphasis on the structures found in Sarmizegetusa Regia, the capital of the Dacian kingdom, and in a few other sites, traditionally identified as indigenous temples. Opreanu is challenging the sacred character of these rectangular buildings, consisting of ranges of columns based on stone disks and surrounded by stone pillars, and is arguing their mundane purpose (granaries). His main objection resides in the discovery of some carbonized grains and other “secular” artefacts (nails, blacksmith and carpentry tools, a weapon etc.) within the premises. In his opinion, only the presence of the images of the worshiped deities within a cella, of “animal bones or votive objects deposits” would be relevant for the identification of a temple. On the other hand, his analysis ignores the presence of the monumental stone altar in the sacred area of Sarmizegetusa Regia, placed in the vicinity of these structures. The present response pleads for a more appropriate approach, specific to the archaeology of ritual, other than this Manichean view regarding the “sacred” and the “profane” character of Iron Age artefacts and structures (cf. R. Bradley, P.S. Wells, M. Poux, etc. – see notes nos. 33, 36–37). The paper also emphasizes a few of Opreanu’s mistakes and inaccuracies in presenting some discoveries coming from Late Iron Age sites in France and in Romania, cited in his study.

Relieving floods, revealing history

A programme of archaeological work prior to the construction of a flood-relief channel at Knocknagael Farm, south-west of Inverness (NGR: NH 656 414), revealed a series of prehistoric features including pits, hearths, fire-spots and possible structural features. Finds included sherds from a Neolithic bowl and a Bronze Age cordoned urn. Palaeo-botanical remains were present in many features and included the carbonised remains of cereal grains including naked six-row barley and spelt. Radiocarbon dating revealed that activity at the site ranged from the 7th millennium BC to the 1st millennium AD. This is one of the earliest dates yet obtained from the Culduthel valley, which has already produced much evidence of prehistoric activity including the high-status Iron Age site of Culduthel Farm (Highland HER MHG49950).
 Read the full account of the excavations at Culduthel in Culduthel: An Iron Age Craftworking Centre in North-East Scotland

Holger Wendling and Karin Wiltschke-Schrotta. Der Dürrnberg bei Hallein: Die Gräbergruppe am Römersteig (Dürrnberg-Forschungen 9, Abteilung Gräberkunde. Rahden/Westfalen: VML Verlag Marie Leidorf, 2015, 356 pp., 245 b/w and colour illustr., 22 tables, 46 plans, 65 plates, hbk, ISBN 978-3-89646-759-1)

The Durrnberg near Hallein (Salzburg, Austria) is an Iron Age site of significance at a European level. It is one of the rare archaeological complexes consisting of one or rather several salt mines...

A diachronic study of Cypriot copper alloy artefacts

More than 750 copper alloy artefacts coming from the Late Bronze Age site of Pyla Kokkinokremos and the Iron Age sites of Palaepaphos Skales and Salamis were analyzed using a handheld pXRF for the determination of the alloy type that was used for their production. The results indicate the abundance of tin in the artefacts of Palaepaphos Skales and a more cautious use in the artefacts from Salamis. On the other hand, the results reveal the shortage of tin and the use of scrap metal in the case of Pyla Kokkinokremos. In Palaepaphos Skales and Salamis, tin was used in some artefacts in a high percentage in order to produce objects whose colour imitates that of gold artefacts. Furthermore, the analysis has shown that lead was added deliberately into the alloys to improve their cast ability, as the specific component is not present in Cypriot copper ores. The low concentration of arsenic in a number of artefacts is interpreted as evidence for the use of recycled metal deriving from artefacts dating to previous periods. Iron and zinc are believed to be non-intentional additions to the alloys, resulting from the smelting process. The present diachronic study of Cypriot copper alloys provides significant information regarding primarily the use of tin and secondly, the presence and justification of the use of the other metallic additives, in the production of bronzes.

Survival after trepanation—Early cranial surgery from Late Iron Age Switzerland

Trepanation is defined as the intentional perforation of the cranial vault with removal of a piece of skull bone. In Europe, trepanation is known to have been practiced at least since the Neolithic, and it can still be found today in East African native tribes. Two skulls with lesions from the Late Iron Age site Münsingen-Rain (420–240 BC) were investigated. The aim of this study was to analyse the lesions and to determine whether they were caused by surgical interventions. Both individuals were analysed by current morphologic-anthropological methods and radiological examinations were performed with a multislice CT-scanner. Additionally, this work surveys trepanations reported in Switzerland and calculates survival rates. In Switzerland, 34 individuals with trepanations have been published. As a tendency, the survival rate appears to be relatively high from the Neolithic to Late Antiquity but then decreases until Pre-Modern times. The 78% survival rate in Late Iron Age Switzerland indicates that the surgery was often performed successfully. Skull injuries sustained in conflicts could have been a reason for trepanation during the Iron Age.

From the Ground, Up: The Looting of Vưườn Chuối within the Vietnamese and Southeast Asian Antiquities Trade

The exact nature of the illicit antiquities trade from ground to market in Southeast Asia remains poorly known outside of Thailand and Cambodia, where most research has been focused. This paper helps to address this imbalance by documenting and contextualizing looting activities at the Bronze and Iron Age site of Vưườn Chuối, located within urban Hanoi. A brief excavation history is provided so as to place recent looting into archaeological context. The methods used to document the recent and on-going looting observed are then discussed, followed by the nature of the current threat to Vưườn Chuối and a summation of what little is known about the Vietnamese antiquities trade in general and its relationship to regional antiquities trafficking. Finally, we discuss the current regulatory landscape in terms of constitutional, ownership, penal and international law, difficulties with enforcement and prosecution, and what course of action is needed not only to protect Vưườn Chuối and similar sites in and around Hanoi, but also to continue to raise public awareness of the archaeological repercussions of the trade itself.

Isotopic and zooarchaeological approaches towards understanding aquatic resource use in human economies and animal management in the prehistoric Scottish North Atlantic Islands

Despite being surrounded by aquatic resources, the Prehistoric populations of the North Atlantic Islands have a complex history of aquatic resource that until now has been little understood. Specifically the changing importance and uses of aquatic resources through time, and the role of aquatic resources in the management of animals in prehistory requires further attention. This paper presents results of faunal isotopic analysis in combination with existing human isotopic evidence and zooarchaeological datasets from Neolithic, Bronze Age and Iron Age sites in the Western Isles (also known as the Outer Hebrides) and Orkney to explore the importance of aquatic resources in the lives of these prehistory populations. In Orkney coastal grazing was an important aspect in the management of sheep throughout prehistory, whereas in the Western Isles this was only evident in the Bronze Age. Aquatic protein was also used in the management of pigs in the Western Isles during the Middle Iron Age. There is little evidence of humans consuming aquatic resources in the Neolithic, and only minor evidence of consumption in the Bronze Age. During the Iron Age aquatic resources become more important in the diet of humans. The Prehistoric Atlantic Islanders of Scotland had a complex and dynamic relationship with aquatic resources, especially in the role of animal management that changed throughout the course of prehistory.

A bioarchaeological study of osteoarthritis among populations of northern China and Mongolia during the Bronze Age to Iron Age transition to nomadic pastoralism

This paper examines data on joint disease among archaeological populations of several sites within northern China and Mongolia to test hypotheses about cultural uniformity among pastoralists and potential changes in the levels and types of activities during the Bronze Age to early Iron Age transition from mixed economies to mounted pastoralism. Despite continuing debate on the etiology of osteoarthritis, there is general consensus that joint use is an important contributor to joint disease. The vertebrae and major limb joints (shoulder, elbow, wrist/hand, hip, knee, and ankle/foot) of adult samples from these two periods were analyzed for prevalence and patterns of joint disease with respect to sex, age, time period, and location. There were only two joint regions with a significant difference between males and females: at the elbow, where males had a higher prevalence, and at the hip, where it was higher among females. The findings indicated a positive relationship between age and osteoarthritis, and that the spine was one of the most affected areas, along with the elbow and knee. Between the two time periods, while not at the level of significance, there was a pattern of higher prevalence of osteoarthritis in the vertebrae and upper limb joints among the Iron Age sample, while the Bronze Age sample had higher rates within the lower limb joints. These findings suggest different mechanical stresses between the two periods, perhaps associated with changes from mobility by foot in the Bronze Age to increased mounted mobility during the Iron Age, including mounted warfare. However, when comparing the individual sites within the two periods and within geographic regions, there was no distinct pattern, as there was much variation within both the Bronze Age and the Iron Age sites, as well as within regions. These varied results among sites and regions suggest that were was no uniform pastoral way of life or movement that imprinted clear patterns of osteoarthritis among pastoral samples. Instead, these data suggest that varied activities, movements, and perhaps mixed economic practices and workload among the sexes may have been characteristic among the “pastoral” groups of the Inner Asian steppe.

Iron-Agers loved a pig trotter festival

It wasn't so much bring a bottle to British Iron Age parties, as bring a pig's leg. At a site in south Wales people apparently feasted almost exclusively on the right forelegs of pigs--a mysterious ritual they kept up for centuries. An Iron Age site at Llanmaes in the Vale of Glamorgan was a particularly important location--but the feasts that occurred there are unlike any others people know of from that time period. Excavations led by the National Museum Wales between 2003 and 2010 recovered a haul of 73,000 bone fragments, 70 per cent of them from pigs. Analyzing them, Richard Madgwick and his colleague Jacqui Mulville found a curious pattern: almost three-quarters of the limb bones came from the right foreleg. Radiocarbon dates on some of the bones suggest that gatherings were held at Llanmaes for at least 700 years--and always featured the right forelegs of pigs.

Re-Engaging with the Iron Age Landscapes of the Outer Hebrides

Abstract This paper explores Iron Age landscapes and places in the Outer Hebrides. The Outer Hebrides are a group of islands where the Iron Age is defined chiefly by the distribution of monumental settlement architecture. The research behind this paper was motivated by the observation that experiential or sensory landscape archaeology had been largely neglected within British Iron Age archaeology and in the study of the Outer Hebridean Iron Age more specifically, despite being comparatively well developed in the context of Neolithic and Bronze Age research. Although there are a variety of perspectives on the Outer Hebridean Iron Age within current literature, they all rely upon the premise that this society was structured primarily around differences in monumental domestic architecture. This paper offers an alternative narrative for the Outer Hebridean Iron Age, structured specifically around an understanding of landscape and place. Four principal landscape settings are identified for Iron Age sites: lowl...

Investigating Dietary Patterns with Stable Isotope Ratios of Collagen and Starch Grain Analysis of Dental Calculus at the Iron Age Cemetery Site of Heigouliang, Xinjiang, China

AbstractHere, we present δ13C and δ15N results for the dietary reconstruction of nomadic pastoralists from the Iron Age (ca. 1000 bc–8 ad) site of Heigouliang. The human (n = 27) δ13C values range from −19.6‰ to −17.0‰ with a mean value of −18.5 ± 0.5‰, and the δ15N results range from 11.5‰ to 13.8‰ with a mean value of 12.4 ± 0.6‰. The results indicated that animals, like sheep, were part of the predominately C3 terrestrial diet, but two individuals have values greater than −18‰ that is indicative of some input of C4 foods in their diets. Because of a lack of faunal samples and to supply complementary information concerning plant consumption, teeth from four individuals were analysed for dental calculus microfossils. Starch grains were found to correspond to Triticeae and Poaceae, possibly including wheat (Triticum aestivum), barley (Hordeum vulgare), highland barley (H. vulgare L var. nudum), foxtail millet (Setaria italica) and/or common millet (Panicum miliaceum). At the population level, no dietary differences were detected between burial owners and sacrificial victims, but variations were found when specific tombs were analysed. In particular, individuals with bone trauma associated with armed conflict also had distinct isotopic signatures possibly suggesting that some of the sacrificial victims could have been captured warriors that were sacrificed for the burial owners. While limited, the results are some of the first from an Iron Age population from Xinjiang and contribute to our understanding of the dietary patterns of this region. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.