Iringa Region Research Articles

A Report on the Impacts of ICT Evolution on Copyrights Protection in Tanzania. Case Study: Iringa Region

“Our key role is to identify these deficiencies and advocate to have them corrected”. “Some of its provisions must be amended in order to bring Tanzania in line with its international treaty obligations as well as evolving international norms. As it is, it simply does not go far enough to protect creators and producers in the digital environment”. This report is concerning the impacts of Information and Communication Technology on Copyrights protection in Tanzania. The report is based on Dar es Salaam and Iringa Regions, which is one among the region in Tanzania that develop and still developing the aspect of information and communication technology. At the end of this report a person may be able to assess the impact of ICT evolution in Tanzania, to measure whether the society is aware that their conducts using ICT facilities hamper copyright protection, to assess if the society understands the concept of copyrights and copyright infringement, to assess the extent of copyright infringement facilitated by ICT evolution, and lastly to measure whether the legal regime present in Tanzania suffices to deal with copyright scenarios observed in the exercise.

The financial burden of a fee free primary education on rural livelihoods – a case study from rural Iringa Region, Tanzania

ABSTRACTThis article explores the financial dilemma from a household level perspective of paying for primary education in Tanzania. In 2001, the primary education fee was abolished in a serious attempt to achieve free universal primary education. By eliminating what was perceived as the main obstacle for reaching education for all, the enrollment rates were expected to increase. However, the schools themselves are unable to manage with the government’s capitation grant only and in order to cope with increasing enrollment rates, households are asked for contributions to cover the expenses of school supplies, food and administrative costs. Based on fieldwork in Iringa Region, this article shows that education today is the main expenditure item for the majority of rural families. Despite a striking difference in housing standard and welfare between the three villages covered by the study, the data indicate a consistent outcome: education, even ‘free’ primary education is expensive in the rural context and families spend a large proportion of their income in order to secure a future of their children. Unlike previous research, children are not found to be withdrawn from school in order to help households with farming or domestic work.

Relationships between seasonal changes in diet of Multimammate rat (Mastomys natalensis) and its breeding patterns in semi-arid areas in Tanzania

The diet and breeding patterns of Mastomys natalensis in semi-arid areas of Isimani division, Iringa region, Tanzania were investigated in maize fields and fallow land. The aim was to investigate t...

Occurrence of European Rhinoceros Beetle, <i>Oryctes nasicornis</i> (L.) (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae), in the Southern Highlands of Tanzania

The European rhinoceros beetle, Oryctes nasicornis (L.), is a large flying beetle in the subfamily Dynastinae of family Scarabaeidae and order Coleoptera. It is well-known to be a Palaearctic species, inhabiting Europe and Asia up to North Africa, with no reported material from the Sub-Saharan African region including Tanzania. The present work reports an occurrence of O. nasicornis in Tanzania specifically in Iringa region in the Southern Highlands zone of the country. The report is accompanied by description of the key morphological characters of the insect validating its diagnosis. The findings facilitate a basis for intervention of the existing records about O. nasicornis, including its biogeographical affiliation and the related undertakings. It is most likely that the species also ranges in other localities in Tanzania and the Sub-Saharan Africa region in general because of the existing proximity and interactions.

Assessment of Maize (Z<i>ea mays</i> L.) <i>Exserohium Turcicum</i> (Pass.) Leonard and Sugg. Isolates on Different Culture Media in Tanzania

Morphological characteristics of twenty five isolates of E. turcicum collected from Kilimanjaro, Arusha, Morogoro, Iringa, Njombe and Mbeya Regions in Tanzania were studied in four solid media namely; V8 vegetable juice agar, malt extract agar, maize leaf extract agar and potato dextrose agar. The experiment was conducted twice and replicated three times (3 replicate × 25 isolates × 4 media) for each medium, making a total of 300 plates. The inoculated cultures were arranged in a Complete Randomized Design (CRD) and incubated at 25±1°C. The statistically significant differences (P ≤ 0.05) in colony growth, conidia germination, dry mycelial weight and rate of sporulation on the four solid media indicated the possibility of different strains of E. turcicum in the studied areas. However, colony growth was aggressive in V8 juice agar (5.7 cm) but conidia germination and rate of sporulation were high in malt extract agar. No isolate of E. turcicum germinated or sporulated on PDA. Isolates such as KHK10, KHK18, KHN17, KHN3, KMM18 (Kilimanjaro Region), MMU13 and MRI4 (Mbeya Region), INM8 (Iringa Region) and MMM18 from Morogoro Region significantly yielded more colony growth, conidial germination, sporulation and dry mycelia compared to the other isolates. Molecular studies are needed to confirm the genetic variations amongst the isolates for sustainable maize breeding in Morogoro, Tanzania.

The impact of a human resource management intervention on the capacity of supervisors to support and supervise their staff at health facility level

BackgroundA systematic and structured approach to the support and supervision of health workers can strengthen the human resource management function at the district and health facility levels and may help address the current crisis in human resources for health in sub-Saharan Africa by improving health workers’ motivation and retention.MethodsA supportive supervision programme including (a) a workshop, (b) intensive training and (c) action learning sets was designed to improve human resource management in districts and health facilities in Tanzania. We conducted a randomised experimental design to evaluate the impact of the intervention. Data on the same measures were collected pre and post the intervention in order to identify any changes that occurred (between baseline and end of project) in the capacity of supervisors in intervention a + b and intervention a + b + c to support and supervise their staff. These were compared to supervisors in a control group in each of Tanga, Iringa and Tabora regions (n = 9). A quantitative survey of 95 and 108 supervisors and 196 and 187 health workers sampled at baseline and end-line, respectively, also contained open-ended responses which were analysed separately.ResultsSupervisors assessed their own competency levels pre- and post-intervention. End-line samples generally scored higher compared to the corresponding baseline in both intervention groups for competence activities. Significant differences between baseline and end-line were observed in the total scores on ‘maintaining high levels of performance’, ‘dealing with performance problems’, ‘counselling a troubled employee’ and ‘time management’ in intervention a + b. In contrast, for intervention a + b + c, a significant difference in distribution of scores was only found on ‘counselling a troubled employee’, although the end-line mean scores were higher than their corresponding baseline mean scores in all cases. Similar trends to those in the supervisors’ reports are seen in health workers data in terms of more efficient supervision processes, although the increases are not as marked.ConclusionA number of different indicators were measured to assess the impact of the supportive supervision intervention on the a + b and a + b + c intervention sites. The average frequency of supervision visits and the supervisors’ competency levels across the facilities increased in both intervention types. This would suggest that the intervention proved effective in raising awareness of the importance of supervision and this understanding led to action in the form of more supportive supervision.

Suitability of Quarry Dust as Fine Aggregates in Concrete: A Case of Ndolela Quarry in Iringa Tanzania

The main objective of this research was to test the suitability of using the quarry dust as fine aggregates in concrete. The study wanted to investigate the properties of fresh and hardened concrete that contains quarry dust as fine aggregates. The quarry dust to be investigated was collected from Ndolela quarry site, found at Isimani village in Iringa region Tanzania. The area constitutes plenty of quarry dust lying idle and the soil found in the same area is clay, the soil that is not suitable for construction. First the properties of the quarry dust such as bulk and gross density, fineness modulus and gradation were determined. Thereafter the concrete mix with sand only as fine aggregates (control concrete mix) was prepared and their properties compared with three different concrete mixes containing quarry dust as fine aggregates. The first, second and third mix had sand replaced by 25%, 50% and 75% respectively. The resulting concrete cubes were tested at seven days and twenty-eight days. The concrete cubes with sand replaced with quarry dust by 75% showed excellent results in compressive strength aspect. Both seven day old cubes and twenty-eight day old cubes posted best compressive strength result for 75% sand replacement. Cubes with 25% and 50% sand replacement performed poorly compared to the control mix cubes. The workability of fresh concrete with quarry dust was slightly low compared to the control mix. However, this is does not rule out the quarry dust as fine aggregates; as the results still lied within the desired medium workability range of 30-80mm. From the results of tests on fresh and hardened concrete; it was found that the quarry dust is suitable to be used as fine aggregates in concrete manufacture.

Excavations at Mlambalasi Rockshelter: a Terminal Pleistocene to Recent Iron Age Record in Southern Tanzania

The Mlambalasi rockshelter in the Iringa Region of southern Tanzania has rich artifactual deposits spanning the Later Stone Age (LSA), Iron Age, and historic periods. Middle Stone Age (MSA) artifacts are also present on the slope in front of the rockshelter. Extensive, systematic excavations in 2006 and 2010 by members of the Iringa Region Archaeological Project (IRAP) illustrate a complex picture of repeated occupations and reuse of the rockshelter during an important time in human history. Direct dates on Achatina shell and ostrich eggshell (OES) beads suggest that the earliest occupation levels excavated at Mlambalasi, which are associated with human burials, are terminal Pleistocene in age. This is exceptional given the rarity of archaeological sites, particularly those with human remains and other preserved organic material, from subtropical Africa between 200,000 and 10,000 years before present. This paper reports on the excavations to date and analysis of artifactual finds from the site. The emerging picture is one of varied, ephemeral use over millennia as diverse human groups were repeatedly attracted to this fixed feature on the landscape.

English

Complimentary Basic Education in Tanzania (COBET) is a community-based programme initiated in 1999 to provide formal education system opportunity to over aged children or children above school age. The COBET program was analyzed using secondary data collected from 21 regions from 2008 to 2012. Cluster analysis was applied to classify the 21 regions in terms of enrolments by cohort, dropouts, gender, and regional per capital Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The cluster analysis classified 21 regions into four (4) distinct clusters. The first cluster constituted nine regions; second cluster had four regions; the third had seven regions and fourth cluster had only one region. There are variations between those clusters with cluster four (Dar es Salaam region), with minimum dropout and cluster two (Kilimanjaro, Mbeya, Arusha and Iringa regions) with minimum enrolment among all clusters. The study concluded that the number of enrolment by cohort, dropout, gender, regional per capital GDP, and time in years can be used to classify regions into four distinct clusters.  However, among the factors associated with the number of enrolment and dropout in the COBET centre; time in years, cohort (age) and clusters were statistically significant at 0.05 level of significance. This study recommends that new plans should be initiated based on these classifications in order to make this programme sustainable and set the new tracking system for follow up of COBET students after completing their studies. Key words: Cluster analysis, poisson regression, and complimentary basic education (COBET).

Iodine Status and Its Determinants among Adolescent School Girls in Rural Tanzania

Iodine deficiency is still one of the most serious public health problems in developing countries in the world. The high rates of adolescent pregnancies in Tanzania exacerbate the vicious cycle of maternal child malnutrition including iodine deficiency. It has been well‐documented that maintaining adequate iodine supply during pregnancy is essential for maternal healthy thyroid function and fetal neurological development. Increased iodine requirements for pregnancy and a high demand for nutrients for growth in adolescent make them vulnerable to inadequate iodine status. However, few studies have reported determinants of iodine status in rural areas of Tanzania. We aimed to assess iodine status and identify its determinants among adolescent schoolgirls in rural Tanzania. Four secondary day schools in Iringa region in Tanzania were randomly selected for this cross‐sectional study during the lean season (January–March) in 2016. A total of 208 adolescent girls aged 12–19 years were surveyed with a questionnaire on general and socioeconomic characteristics of themselves and their caregivers; dietary intakes; and use of iodized salt in cooking at home, and single spot urine samples. Multivariable logistic regressions were performed to identify determinants of iodine status, while controlling for covariates. Based on UICs from urine samples, iodine status of the adolescent girls was adequate (median UIC: 227.1 μg/L) and the prevalence estimate of UIC <50 μg/L was 16.4% among adolescent girls in rural Tanzania. Adolescent girls in the lowest tertile of UIC tended to live in a smaller household and have their caregivers having a low level of education and working as blue‐collar employees (peasant farmers) than those in the highest tertile of UIC. Adolescent girls living in semi‐urban were more likely to be at risks for UIC <50 μg/L (adjusted odds ratio [AOR]=16.32, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 4.92–54.11, P <0.01), compared to those living in rural area. Adolescent girls who have caregivers working as peasant farmers had a lower risk of UIC <50 μg/L, than those who have caregivers working as a white‐collar employee such as educator, health professionals, and business person (AOR=0.17, 95% CI:0.03–0.97, P <0.05). The present study provides the evidences that socioeconomic status of caregivers was important determinants of adolescent girls' iodine status. Therefore, nutrition education for adolescents' caregiver should be emphasized to combat nutritional inadequacies. Further investigations longitudinally designed with large samples are warranted to identify risk factors of iodine deficiency among adolescent girls of childbearing age in Tanzania.Support or Funding InformationThis study was conducted by the generous financial support of a USAID‐funded Food Security Project, Innovative Agricultural Research Initiative (iAGRI) in Tanzania.

Social and structural factors related to HIV risk among truck drivers passing through the Iringa region of Tanzania

ABSTRACTTruck drivers and their assistants have been identified as groups at higher risk for HIV infection. We sought to identify and describe the social and structural factors that may contribute to HIV risk among truck drivers who visit rest stops in Iringa, Tanzania, a region characterized by high levels of migration and mobility. This analysis was part of a comprehensive strategic assessment to examine HIV risk factors in Iringa. This analysis focuses on 11 in-depth interviews with truck drivers and a transport owner. A semi-structured interview guide was developed to elicit open-ended responses and enable probing. Interviews were conducted in Swahili, transcribed, and translated into English. Data analysis followed thematic analysis procedures that included initial reading of transcripts, development of a codebook and identification of themes through in-depth reading of transcripts. Drivers described structural risk factors for HIV including work conditions, the power imbalance between male drivers and their sexual partners and minimal perceived HIV risk with certain partners (e.g., regular partners and women selling sex). Multiple and inter-related social norms associated with truck stop environments influenced HIV risk, including peer influence and expectations, presence of sex workers, ability to purchase sex throughout their travel and alcohol consumption. These distinct social norms in truck stops and other rest points facilitated behavior that many participants said they would not engage in elsewhere. HIV prevention strategies with truck drivers should address individual, social and structural barriers to HIV prevention through partnerships with the health and transportation sectors, local government and local communities. HIV prevention services should be adapted to drivers’ times and places of availability, for example, condom provision where/when drivers make decisions about or have sex. A focus on positive messaging and addressing specific challenges including the continual challenge of re-choosing and reinforcing decisions to engage in safer sexual behaviors is important.

Entering in and sustaining a career in male-dominated jobs: an examination of female security guards' experiences in Iringa region, Tanzania

Entering in and sustaining a career in male-dominated jobs: an examination of female security guards' experiences in Iringa region, Tanzania

Entering in and sustaining a career in male-dominated jobs: an examination of female security guards' experiences in Iringa region, Tanzania

This paper studies challenges confronting women while seeking to enter and sustain a career in the booming male dominated private security companies (PSCs). It uses the socialist feminist approach and qualitative interviews with female and male security guards, and PSC managers in Iringa, Tanzania to show that women seeking employment in PSCs are constrained by sexual harassment and exploitation as well as having to secure consent of their spouses before they can take up the job offers. Similarly, for those who make it into the PSCs, challenges such as tight and long-hour shifts and sexual harassment and exploitation are part of their daily experiences at work. The strategies devised to address these challenges and/or cope with them are not helping women. Moreover, while some challenges are common to both men and women, their sexual differences and burdensome domestic chores make women more vulnerable than men.

Antimicrobial Activity of Propolis From Tabora and Iringa Regions, Tanzania and Synergism with Gentamicin

Pentacyclic triterpenes and crude extracts with antimicrobial activity from Cameroonian brown propolis samplesSakava Paul, Talla Emmanuel, Chelea Matchawe, Tchinda Tiabou Alembert, Zeuko’o Menkem Elisabeth, Laurent Sophie, Vander Elst Luce, Tagatsing Fotsing Maurice, Yaya Gbaweng Abel Joel, Atchade De Théodore Alex and Mbafor Tanyi Joseph

Decision-support tool for management of miombo woodlands: a matrix model approach

Rational forest management planning requires information on the present forest state and on future development. However, forest management planning in Tanzania has often been done without any information on forest development because appropriate tools are lacking. This study presents a matrix model that combines distance-independent growth and mortality models, area-based recruitment models, and allometric models for prediction of volume and biomass. In this way forest development can be simulated according to different treatment options. A short-term (seven years) test of the matrix model using independent data from permanent sample plots showed that the overall difference between predicted and observed basal area was small (6.5%). Long-term simulations (1 000 years) with the model showed that it was able to attain, irrespective of initial conditions, similar steady-state conditions (i.e. basal area, volume and biomass of 13 m2 ha−1, 130 m3 ha−1 and 90 t ha−1, respectively), which also correspond well to biological expectations in the ‘real’ miombo woodlands of the country. The flexibility of the model as a decision-support tool was demonstrated by simulating three harvesting options aiming at different combinations of charcoal and timber production. The model complexity is well adapted to the data quality and abundance, and it is dependent on proxies of some main drivers of the dynamic processes. The development of the matrix model is a step forward facilitating better decisions in the management of miombo woodlands. However, data ranges used for calibrating the submodels are limited in time and space, and future efforts should focus on tests and recalibrations based on extended data ranges. Presently, therefore, applications of the matrix model should be limited to the data ranges of the modelling data from the Iringa and Manyara regions.

Modelling diameter growth, mortality and recruitment of trees in miombo woodlands of Tanzania

Miombo woodlands cover large areas in Tanzania but very little reliable data on forest dynamics for the woodlands exist. The main objective of this study was to develop a model system describing such dynamics based on easily measurable tree variables. Individual tree diameter growth and mortality models, and area-based recruitment models were developed. The modelling was based on data from 117 permanent sample plots established between 1997 and 2009 on seven sites in the Iringa and Manyara regions. The data set comprised 2 314 trees at establishment and 4 758 observations of individual tree growth, and covered a large number of species (141). Based on diameter growth and by using a model-based clustering procedure, three tree species groups were developed. Several model forms with different independent variables were tested. Simple and robust models with few independent variables, which agreed with expected biological behaviour, were finally selected. Although biological behaviour was the principal model selection criterion, the models also performed well statistically. The developed model system, which is the first of its kind for miombo woodlands in Africa, may be used to develop a decision-support tool for practical forest management planning in the country.

Implication of climate change and variability on stream flow in Iringa region, Tanzania

This paper investigates the implication of climate change and variability on the river flow within the traditional irrigation farming system, vinyungu, in Iringa region, Tanzania. The study aimed at establishing areas that are most impacted by climate change in terms of river flow and various adaptation strategies. It is based on both primary data collected by questionnaires distributed randomly among 189 farmers and key informant checklists conducted with villages’ leaders and Agriculture Extension Officers. Two focused group discussions were carried out for each village as well as the researcher's own observations, and secondary data includes: literature review, rainfall and river flow data. The long-term annual trends of rainfall and river flow were analyzed via Mann–Kendall's statistical test and linear trend analysis. Climate data on rainfall trend showed a significant decreasing pattern during the last 17 years. Also, river flow data showed a slight decline within the same period. Decrement in river flow, combined with rainfall fluctuation, forced farmers to employ various adaptation strategies. Following the severity of the problem the paper recommends that more research be conducted on proper water management for sustainable river flow for both agriculture production and environmental management.

Appraisal of common bean farming systems under angular leaf spot disease prone environments of the Southern Highlands of Tanzania

Angular leaf spot caused by Pseudocercospora griseola is the most destructive disease of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L) in the Southern Highlands of Tanzania (SHT). The objectives of this study were to assess the farming system and farmers awareness in the ALS disease prone environments of the SHT. A structured questionnaire was designed to collect information from 238 respondents sampled from Mbeya, Njombe, Iringa and Rukwa regions. Data collected included population demography, production constraints, and indicators of poverty. The results showed that ALS widely occurred in the SHT but farmers were not aware of the disease and sources of inocula. Most of the respondents were poor with average yields of less than 500 kg ha-1. Lack of knowledge on ALS disease and the presence of favorable environmental conditions increased chances of P. griseola proliferation. Therefore, trainings on awareness and intensification of extension services is important. Breeding for durable resistance is an overriding consideration towards increasing bean productivity in the SHT.

A Randomized Evaluation of a Demand Creation Lottery for Voluntary Medical Male Circumcision Among Adults in Tanzania.

Background:Uptake of voluntary medical male circumcision (VMMC) among adult men has fallen short of targets in Tanzania. We evaluated a smartphone raffle intervention designed to increase VMMC uptake in three regions.Methods:Among 7 matched pairs of health facilities, 1 in each pair was randomly assigned to the intervention, consisting of a weekly smartphone raffle for clients returning for follow-up and monthly raffle for peer promoters and providers. VMMC records of clients aged 20 and older were analyzed over three months, with the number performed compared with the same months in the previous year. In multivariable models, the intervention's effect on number of VMMCs was adjusted for client factors and clustering. Focus groups with clients and peer promoters explored preferences for VMMC incentives.Results:VMMCs increased 47% and 8% in the intervention and control groups, respectively; however, the changes were not significantly different from one another. In the Iringa region subanalysis, VMMCs in the intervention group increased 336% (exponentiated coefficient of 3.36, 95% CI: 1.14 to 9.90; P = 0.028), after controlling for facility pair, percentage of clients ≥ age 30, and percentage testing HIV positive; the control group had a more modest 63% increase (exponentiated coefficient 1.63, 95% CI: 1.18 to 2.26; P = 0.003). The changes were not significantly different. Focus group respondents expressed mixed opinions about smartphone raffles; some favored smaller cash incentive or transportation reimbursement.Implications:A smartphone raffle might increase VMMC uptake in some settings by helping late adopters move from intention to action; however, this study did not find strong evidence to support its implementation broadly.

Bringing Early Infant Male Circumcision Information Home to the Family: Demographic Characteristics and Perspectives of Clients in a Pilot Project in Tanzania.

Iringa region of Tanzania has had great success reaching targets for voluntary medical male circumcision (VMMC). Looking to sustain high coverage of male circumcision, the government introduced a pilot project to offer early infant male circumcision (EIMC) in Iringa in 2013. From April 2013 to December 2014, a total of 2,084 male infants were circumcised in 8 health facilities in the region, representing 16.4% of all male infants born in those facilities. Most circumcisions took place 7 days or more after birth. The procedure proved safe, with only 3 mild and 3 moderate adverse events (0.4% overall adverse event rate). Overall, 93% of infants were brought back for a second-day visit and 71% for a seventh-day visit. These percentages varied significantly by urban and rural residence (97.4% urban versus 84.6% rural for day 2 visit; 82.2% urban versus 49.9% rural for day 7 visit). Mothers were more likely than fathers to have received information about EIMC. However, fathers tended to be key decision makers regarding circumcision of their sons. This suggests the importance of addressing fathers with behavioral change communication about EIMC. Successes in scaling up VMMC services in Iringa did not translate into immediate acceptability of EIMC. EIMC programs will require targeted investments in demand creation to expand and thrive in traditionally non-circumcising settings such as Iringa.