Ion Measurements Research Articles

Energy of the excess electron in methane and ethane near the critical point

Field ionization measurements of trimethylamine in methane and triethylamine in ethane are presented as a function of perturber number density at various noncritical temperatures and near the perturber critical isotherm. Critical point effects are observed that are similar to those seen in atomic fluids. A two-Yukawa potential is shown to model the perturber/perturber interactions accurately by calculating the phase diagram of the perturber fluids, and using this potential the local Wigner–Seitz model for the energy of the excess electron is successfully applied to these molecular systems.

SU‐FF‐T‐325: Dose Perturbation Study in a Multichannel Breast Brachytherapy Device

Purpose: To determine the dosimetric effects due to air pockets and high Z contrast within a new multichannel breast brachytherapy device Method and Materials: The 5‐6cm diameter Contura brachytherapy device was inflated using 37cm3 of saline to a 40 mm diameter. Baseline dose falloff from an HDR Iridium‐192 source was measured in water using a Markus parallel plate chamber supported on a motorized vertical drive. Ionization measurements with the Iridium source centered in the central Contura channel and an anterior off‐center channel were performed. Data were collected at distances from 1 to 50 mm. Comparison studies were conducted with identical inflated volume containing varying air pocket volumes (1–4 cm3) and varying concentrations of Isovue contrast solution (3, 6, and 9% by volume). Dose perturbation factors (DPF) were computed and evaluated. Results: Dose perturbations due to air pockets and contrast solutions were observed. As the volume of air increased the DPF caused increased dose at a rate of approximately 2.25%/cm3. The effect was relatively consistent for both channels throughout the distance range. The effects due to contrast were more complex. Increased dose was observed from the 3% solution, by 2% from the source in the central channel (♯5) and by 4% with the source in the off‐center channel (♯1). A dose reduction of 1.0% from channel ♯5 and 1.5% dose increase from channel ♯1 occurred from the 6% contrast solution. The 9% contrast solution caused dose reductions by 3.5% (channel ♯5) and 2.5% (channel ♯1). The DPF from all contrast solutions moderated with increasing distance. Conclusion: Dose perturbations due to air pockets and high Z contrast solution can be significant. Treatment planning systems do not account for these. It is important to minimize internal air pockets and limit contrast solution concentration to avoid dose errors to the target and normal tissue.

Recent progress in emulsion technology to study fragmentation reactions of high energetic ion beams

The R&D project to study nuclear fragmentation using emulsion in attempt to improve the accuracy of dose calculation in carbon ion radiotherapy has been carried out at NIRS-HIMAC since 2003. Based on the developed techniques, we are accumulating experimental data of fragmentation reactions for various beams and target combinations. In this program we are also developing the practical application of hybrid apparatus of emulsion and CR-39 and performing basic study of gold deposition development in order to improve measurement of ionization.

Attosecond Ionization and Tunneling Delay Time Measurements in Helium

It is well established that electrons can escape from atoms through tunneling under the influence of strong laser fields, but the timing of the process has been controversial and far too rapid to probe in detail. We used attosecond angular streaking to place an upper limit of 34 attoseconds and an intensity-averaged upper limit of 12 attoseconds on the tunneling delay time in strong field ionization of a helium atom. The ionization field derives from 5.5-femtosecond-long near-infrared laser pulses with peak intensities ranging from 2.3 x 10(14) to 3.5 x 10(14) watts per square centimeter (corresponding to a Keldysh parameter variation from 1.45 to 1.17, associated with the onset of efficient tunneling). The technique relies on establishing an absolute reference point in the laboratory frame by elliptical polarization of the laser pulse, from which field-induced momentum shifts of the emergent electron can be assigned to a temporal delay on the basis of the known oscillation of the field vector.

Enhanced field ionization of water adsorbed on a carbon monoxide-covered, platinum field emitter tip

The influence of carbon monoxide, adsorbed on a platinum field emitter tip, on field ionization of adsorbed water was examined. Ramped field desorption (RFD) measurements of water ionization were performed at 108K for water layer thicknesses up to 80ML on a clean or CO-saturated tip surface. In RFD the applied field is ramped linearly in time until water ionization is detected, giving the onset field of ionization. Water ionization yields hydrated hydroxide ions and protons; the hydroxide ions remain within the water layer on the tip, while the hydrated protons are emitted into vacuum. At a low water coverage of 1.5ML, the CO adlayer substantially reduced the onset field of ionization (that is, facilitated ionization) of water by 40%, from a value of 0.43V/Å for water on clean Pt to 0.26V/Å for water on CO-covered Pt. The extent of the reduction gradually diminished with thicker coverages of water and was absent at coverages of 20ML or greater. The characteristic decay length of the field enhancement was 4.7±1ML. The results were analyzed with the charge exchange model of ionization kinetics and changes in dipole moments of water adsorbed without and with CO. The analysis reveals that a change in water structure (dipole moment) caused by CO is an important contributor in field enhancement and that the dipole moment for hydrated hydroxide ion in an ice-like layer must be greater than that for bulk ice-like water. The significance of these results with respect to electrochemical oxidation of CO is discussed.

Dynamics of collisions with positrons

The measurement of ionization by positron impact reveals that the maximum of the electron capture to the continuum cusp is shifted from its theoretical position. In this work the hypothesis that the observed effect is the result of an anisotropic momentum distribution in the projectile–electron reference system is considered.By elaborating on the ansatz that the cusp asymmetry is qualitatively similar for positron impact than the for ion–atom collisions, we obtain fully differential cross sections that show the same features than those experimentally observed. The present estimation for the position of the maximum agrees well with cross section measurements performed in coincident electron–positron detection experiments.

Molecular frame and recoil frame angular distributions in dissociative photoionization of small molecules

Photoelectron angular distributions in the dipole approximation can be written with respect to several different reference frames. A brief review of the molecular frame and recoil frame are given. Experimentally, one approach for obtaining such angular distributions is through angle-resolved coincidence measurements of dissociative ionization. If the system dissociates into two heavy fragments, then the recoil frame angular distribution can be measured. Computed molecular frame and recoil frame photoelectron angular distributions are compared to experimental data for the Cl 2p ionization of CH3Cl.

Ionization of the earth’s atmosphere by solar and galactic cosmic rays

A brief review of the research of atmospheric effects of cosmic rays is presented. Numerical models are discussed, that are capable to compute the cosmic ray induced ionization at a given location and time. Intercomparison of the models, as well as comparison with fragmentary direct measurements of the atmospheric ionization, validates their applicability for the entire atmosphere and the whole range of the solar activity level variations. The effect of sporadic solar energetic particle events is shown to be limited on the global scale, even for the most severe event, but can be very strong locally in polar regions, affecting the physical-chemical properties of the upper atmosphere, especially at high altitudes. Thus, a new methodology is presented to study cosmic ray induced ionization of the atmosphere in full detail using realistic numerical models calibrated to direct observations.

Vacuum ultraviolet pulsed field ionization-photoelectron and infrared-photoinduced Rydberg ionization study of trans-1,3-butadiene

The vacuum ultraviolet (VUV) laser pulsed field ionization-photoelectron (PFI-PE) spectrum of trans-1,3-butadiene (trans-CH(2)[Double Bond]CHCH[Double Bond]CH(2)) has been measured in the region of 0-1700 cm(-1) above its ionization energy (IE) to probe the vibrational modes nu(i) (+) (i=1-18) of trans-CH(2)[Double Bond]CHCH[Double Bond]CH(2) (+). The high-frequency vibrational modes nu(i) (+) (i=19, 22, and 23) of trans-CH(2)[Double Bond]CHCH[Double Bond]CH(2) (+) have also been probed by the VUV-infrared-photoinduced Rydberg ionization (VUV-IR-PIRI) measurement. On the basis of the semiempirical simulation of the origin VUV-PFI-PE band, the IE(trans-CH(2)[Double Bond]CHCH[Double Bond]CH(2)) is determined to be 73 150.1+/-1.5 cm(-1) (9.06946+/-0.00019 eV). This value has been used to benchmark the state-of-the-art theoretical IE prediction based on the CCSD(T,Full)/CBS procedures, the calculation of which is reported in the present study. The vibrational bands observed in the VUV-PFI-PE and VUV-IR-PIRI spectra were assigned based on ab initio anharmonic vibrational frequencies and Franck-Condon factor calculations for the photoionization transitions. Combining the VUV-PFI-PE and VUV-IR-PIRI measurements, 17 fundamental vibrational frequencies of trans-CH(2)[Double Bond]CHCH[Double Bond]CH(2) (+) have been determined, including nu(1) (+)=182+/-3, nu(2) (+)=300+/-3, nu(3) (+)=428+/-3, nu(4) (+)=514+/-3, nu(5) (+)=554+/-5, nu(6) (+)=901+/-3, nu(7) (+)=928+/-5, nu(8) (+)=994+/-3, nu(9) (+)=1008+/-5, nu(10) (+)=1094+/-5, nu(13) (+)=1258+/-3, nu(14) (+)=1293+/-3, nu(16) (+)=1479+/-3, nu(18) (+)=1620+/-3, nu(19) (+)=2985+/-10, nu(22) (+)=3030+/-10, and nu(23) (+)=3105+/-10 cm(-1).

The response of silicon detectors to low-energy ion implantation

Studies of electrical transients in single-crystal silicon induced by discrete low-energy(sub-20 keV) ions have been carried out at 90 K, with ionization measurements and damageaccumulation in the sample being investigated. Ionization studies reveal a discrepancybetween experimental results and predictions from the widely used SRIM (stopping andrange of ions in matter) code, one which increases with decreasing energy: a result whichhas previously been suggested from studies with continuous ion beams. Damageaccumulation studies of the sample also demonstrate that current models of damagebuild-up in silicon are inadequate at such low energies, with experiments indicatingthat individual ions create a much larger region of decreased charge collectionefficiency outside of the small amorphous cores known to be formed by such impacts.

Direct Determination of the Ionization Energies of PtC, PtO, and PtO2 with VUV Radiation

Photoionization efficiency curves were measured for gas-phase PtC, PtO, and PtO2 using tunable vacuum ultraviolet (VUV) radiation at the Advanced Light Source. The molecules were prepared by laser ablation of a platinum tube, followed by reaction with CH4 or N2O and supersonic expansion. These measurements provide the first directly measured ionization energy for PtC, IE(PtC) = 9.45 +/- 0.05 eV. The direct measurement also gives greatly improved ionization energies for the platinum oxides, IE(PtO) = 10.0 +/- 0.1 eV and IE(PtO2) = 11.35 +/- 0.05 eV. The ionization energy connects the dissociation energies of the neutral and cation, leading to greatly improved 0 K bond dissociation energies for the neutrals: D0(Pt-C) = 5.95 +/- 0.07 eV, D0(Pt-O) = 4.30 +/- 0.12 eV, and D0(OPt-O) = 4.41 +/- 0.13 eV, as well as enthalpies of formation for the gas-phase molecules DeltaH(0)(f,0)(PtC(g)) = 701 +/- 7 kJ/mol, DeltaH(0)(f,0)(PtO(g)) = 396 +/- 12 kJ/mol, and DeltaH(0)(f,0)(PtO2(g)) = 218 +/- 11 kJ/mol. Much of the error in previous Knudsen cell measurements of platinum oxide bond dissociation energies is due to the use of thermodynamic second law extrapolations. Third law values calculated using statistical mechanical thermodynamic functions are in much better agreement with values obtained from ionization energies and ion energetics. These experiments demonstrate that laser ablation production with direct VUV ionization measurements is a versatile tool to measure ionization energies and bond dissociation energies for catalytically interesting species such as metal oxides and carbides.

A bent electrostatic ion beam trap for simultaneous measurements of fragmentation and ionization of cluster ions

We describe a bent electrostatic ion beam trap in which cluster ions of several keV kinetic energy can be stored on a V-shaped trajectory by means of an electrostatic deflector placed between two electrostatic mirrors. While maintaining all the advantages of its linear counterpart [Zajfman et al., Phys. Rev. A 55, R1577 (1997); Dahan et al., Rev. Sci. Instrum. 69, 76 (1998)], such as long storage times, straight segments, and a field-free region for merged or crossed beam experiments, the bent trap allows for simultaneous measurement of charged and neutral fragments and determination of the average kinetic energy released in the fragmentation. These unique properties of the bent trap are illustrated by first results concerning the competition between delayed fragmentation and ionization of Al(n) (-) clusters after irradiation by a short laser pulse.

Measurements of meteor smoke particles during the ECOMA-2006 campaign: 2. Results

The first sounding rocket of the European ECOMA-project (ECOMA, Existence and Charge state Of Meteoric smoke particles in the middle Atmosphere) was launched on 8 September 2006. Measurements with a new particle detector described in the companion paper by Rapp and Strelnikova [2008. Measurements of meteor smoke particles during the ECOMA-2006 campaign: 1. Particle detection by active photoionization. Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics, this issue, doi: 10.1016/j.jastp.2008.06.002] clearly showed meteor smoke particle (MSP) signatures in both data channels. The data channels measure particles directly impacting on the detector electrode and photoelectrons from the particles actively created using ionization by the UV-photons of a xenon-flashlamp. Measured photoelectron currents resemble model expectations of the shape of the MSP layer almost perfectly, whereas derived number densities in the altitude range 60–90 km are larger than model results by about a factor of 5. Given the large uncertainties inherent to both model and the analysis of our measurements (e.g., the composition of the particles is not known and must be assumed) we consider this a satisfactory agreement and proof that MSPs do extend throughout the entire mesosphere as predicted by models. The measurements of direct particle impacts revealed a confined layer of negative charge between 80 and 90 km. This limited altitude range, however, is quantitatively shown to be the consequence of the aerodynamics of the rocket flight and does not have any geophysical origin. Measured charge signatures are consistent with expectations of particle charging given our own measurements of the background ionization. Unfortunately, however, a contamination of these measurements from triboelectric charging cannot be excluded at this stage.

Molecular and supramolecular chirality: R2PI spectroscopy as a tool for the gas‐phase recognition of chiral systems of biological interest

In life sciences, diastereomeric chiral molecule/chiral receptor complexes are held together by a different combination of intermolecular forces and are therefore endowed with different stability and reactivity. Determination of these forces, which are normally affected in the condensed phase by solvent and supramolecular interactions, can be accomplished through the generation of diastereomeric complexes in the isolated state and their spectroscopic investigation. This review presents a detailed discussion of the mass resolved Resonant Two Photon Ionization (R2PI-TOF) technique in supersonic beams and introduces an overview of various other technologies currently available for the spectroscopic study of gas phase chiral molecules and supramolecular systems. It reports case studies primarily from our recent work using R2PI-TOF methodology for chiral recognition in clusters containing molecules of biological interest. The measurement of absorption spectra, ionization and fragmentation thresholds of diastereomeric clusters by this technique allow the determination of the nature of the intrinsic interactions, which control their formation and which affect their stability and reactivity.

Monte Carlo Simulation of Macromolecular Ionization by Nanoelectrospray

Electrospray ionization (ESI) is commonly used in macromolecular mass spectrometry, yet the dynamics of macromolecules in ESI droplets are not well understood. In this study, a Monte Carlo based model was developed, which can predict the efficiency of electrospray ionization for macromolecules, i.e., the number of macromolecular ions produced per macromolecules electrosprayed. The model takes into account ESI droplet evaporation, macromolecular diffusion within the droplet, droplet fissions, and the statistical nature of the ESI process. Two idealized representations of macromolecular analytes were developed, describing cluster prone, droplet surface inactive macromolecules and droplet surface active macromolecules, respectively. It was found that surface active macromolecules are preferentially ionized over surface inactive cluster prone macromolecules when the initial droplet size is large and the analyte concentration in solution is high. Simulations showed that ESI efficiency decreases with increasing initial droplet size and analyte molecular weight, and is influenced by analyte surface activity, the properties of the solvent, and the variance of the droplet size distribution. Model predictions are qualitatively supported by experimental measurements of macromolecular electrospray ionization made previously. Overall, this study demonstrates the potential capabilities of Monte Carlo based ESI models. Future developments in such models will allow for more accurate predictions of macromolecular ESI intensity.

Nonintrusive measurement of ionisation in vegetation fire plasma

Vegetation fires are slightly ionised gaseous medium. Omnipresent alkali metal species in plant's organic structure are the main source of thermally produced electrons in the fires. In the flames, electron-neutral particle collisions dominate other modes of particle interaction. The collision regime absorbs some of the incident energy when the fire is illuminated with electromagnetic waves. The rate of electromagnetic wave absorption in the vegetation fires has implications on the safety of fire-fighters. During wildfire suppression, radio communication blackout at vhf/uhf has been experienced. This may be partly due to thermal ionisation in the fire. In the experiment, the extent of ionisation in vegetation fires is measured using a 2-port vector network analyser. X-band microwaves are caused to propagate combustion zones of eucalyptus bark and guinea grass fires with maximum temperatures of 1114 and 1054 K respectively. Alkali content in the vegetation fuel was different. Measurements show maximum ionisation in flames produced from guinea grass, which had almost twice much potassium as that of eucalyptus bark, to be 2.63 × 10 16 m −3 while that produced in eucalyptus bark flame was 1.46 × 10 16 m −3 .

Kinetic Inductance Phonon Sensors for the Cryogenic Dark Matter Search Experiment

An important challenge faced by phonon-mediated detectors for the next generation of dark matter detectors (>100 kg) is to instrument large target mass at low cost, while maintaining the large background suppression offered by the combination of phonons and ionization (or scintillation) measurement. Kinetic inductance phonon sensors, operating far below the superconducting transition temperature, offer an interesting solution to this scaling problem. They do not critically depend on the uniformity of T c and their resonant-cavity readout is easy to multiplex. We are studying a microstrip (two parallel planes) transmission line architecture that may offer the additional advantage of a separation of functions: the main detector is just covered by an unpatterned aluminum film and the number of quasi-particles created in it by athermal phonons are sensed by a second film, which has been independently patterned and is mounted a few microns away from the detector. We present current results on the responsivity and noise of large area (∼33 mm2) microstrip kinetic inductance phonon sensors.

Field ionization of free helium atoms: Correlation between the kinetic energy of ionized atoms and probability of their field ionization

In this paper the correlation between the kinetic energy of helium atoms and the probability of field ionization is investigated by exploiting the narrow velocity distribution of supersonic molecular beams. Field ionization measurements were carried out on supersonic helium beams at 298 K and 95 K corresponding to energies of about 65 meV and 20 meV, respectively, for the individual atoms. The field ionization was performed with a tungsten tip, radius of curvature 12 nm, kept at room temperature. The ionization probability was found to increase by about a factor 10 when the beam was cooled from 298 K to 95 K. The results presented in this paper are of importance for improving the understanding of field ionization and for the development of a new detector for helium and other molecular beams.

Meteoroid structure from radar head echoes

The Advanced Research Project Agency (ARPA) Long Range Tracking and Instrumentation Radar has recorded thousands of head echoes from small meteoroids, which include detailed trajectory information as well as ionization measurements. In total, 25 complete ionization curves have been matched using a detailed model of meteoroid ablation, though the solutions are not necessarily unique. While measurements of the spread along the trajectory of the echoes indicate that most meteors in this size range do not have large separations among fragments, the ionization curves are consistent with fragmenting bodies in the most cases. Very precise radar measurements of meteors can be a valuable source of data on the chemical and physical properties of small meteoroids.

Two-color interference effect involving three-photon atomic excitation and four-wave mixing in crossed laser beams

Through multiphoton ionization measurements, the polarization effects in destructive quantum interference under three-photon resonant excitation have been studied. Recent observations [V. Peet, Phys. Rev. A 74, 033406 (2006)] have indicated that contrary to the well-known pattern of a total suppression of resonance excitation, the destructive interference becomes incomplete if three-photon transition is driven by crossed beams with orthogonal polarization planes. These observations have been tested for a more general case of two-color excitation and very similar polarization-dependent anomalies in the interference character have been registered. It has been shown that the destructive interference is modified and the resonance excitation does occur if two crossed laser beams have opposite circular polarizations. The pressure-induced evolution of the uncanceled ionization peaks has the ratio of blue shift to width close to 0.5 exactly as it is known for resonance ionization peaks registered under excitation by counterpropagating laser beams.