Ion Cyclotron Resonance Cell Research Articles

Improved ion optics for introduction of ions into a 9.4-T Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometer.

Enhancements to the ion source and transfer optics of our 9.4 T Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance (ICR) mass spectrometer have resulted in improved ion transmission efficiency for more sensitive mass measurement of complex mixtures at the MS and MS/MS levels. The tube lens/skimmer has been replaced by a dual ion funnel and the following octopole by a quadrupole for reduced ion cloud radial expansion before transmission into a mass-selective quadrupole. The number of ions that reach the ICR cell is increased by an order of magnitude for the funnel/quadrupole relative to the tube lens/skimmer/octopole.

Linkage and anomeric differentiation in trisaccharides by sequential fragmentation and variable-wavelength infrared photodissociation.

Carbohydrates and their derivatives play important roles in biological systems, but their isomeric heterogeneity also presents a considerable challenge for analytical techniques. Here, a stepwise approach using infrared multiple-photon dissociation (IRMPD) via a tunable CO2 laser (9.2-10.7 μm) was employed to characterize isomeric variants of glucose-based trisaccharides. After the deprotonated trisaccharides were trapped and fragmented to disaccharide C2 fragments in a Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance (FTICR) cell, a further variable-wavelength infrared irradiation of the C2 ion produced wavelength-dependent dissociation patterns that are represented as heat maps. The photodissociation patterns of these C2 fragments are shown to be strikingly similar to the photodissociation patterns of disaccharides with identical glycosidic bonds. Conversely, the photodissociation patterns of different glycosidic linkages exhibit considerable differences. On the basis of these results, the linkage position and anomericity of glycosidic bonds of disaccharide units in trisaccharides can be systematically differentiated and identified, providing a promising approach to characterize the structures of isomeric oligosaccharides.

High-resolution Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry with increased throughput for biomolecular analysis.

A multielectrode ion cyclotron resonance (ICR) cell, herein referred to as the "4X cell", for signal detection at the quadruple frequency multiple was implemented and characterized on a commercial 10 T Fourier transform ICR mass spectrometer (FT-ICR MS). Notably, with the 4X cell operating at a 10 T magnetic field we achieved a 4-fold increase in MS acquisition rate per unit of resolving power for signal detection periods typically employed in FTMS, viz., shorter than 6 s. Effectively, the obtained resolution performance represents the limit of the standard measurement principle with dipolar signal detection and FT signal processing at an equivalent magnetic field of 40 T. In other words, the achieved resolving powers are 4 times higher than those provided by 10 T FT-ICR MS with a standard ICR cell. For example, resolving powers of 170,000 and 70,000 were obtained in magnitude-mode Fourier spectra of 768 and 192 ms apodized transient signals acquired for a singly charged fluorinated phosphazine (m/z 1422) and a 19-fold charged myoglobin (MW 16.9 kDa), respectively. In peptide analysis, the baseline-resolved isotopic fine structures were obtained with as short as 768 ms transients. In intact protein analysis, the average resolving power of 340,000 across the baseline-resolved (13)C isotopic pattern of multiply charged ions of bovine serum albumin was obtained with 1.5 s transients. The dynamic range and the mass measurement accuracy of the 4X cell were found to be comparable to the ones obtained for the standard ICR cell on the same mass spectrometer. Overall, the reported results validate the advantages of signal detection at frequency multiples for increased throughput in FT-ICR MS, essential for numerous applications with time constraints, including proteomics.

The filter diagonalization method and its assessment for Fourier transform mass spectrometry

Application of the filter diagonalization method (FDM) to Fourier transform mass spectrometry (FTMS) data is not new. Under certain conditions FDM provides resolution superior to Fourier transform (FT) and was proved to be useful in investigation of space charge phenomena in an ion cyclotron resonance cell (ICR) by O’Connor and Amster research groups. Kozhinov and Tsybin have reported substantial increase in resolution and/or acquisition speed of high-resolution molecular and macromolecular MS data. In light of fundamental difficulty in providing theoretical evaluation of the FDM performance under various spectral and noise conditions, this paper is an empirical investigation aimed at establishing the method's true potentials and areas where it may perform better than currently used technologies. The study was conducted on both synthetic transients and experimental Orbitrap transients. Unlike FT, resolution of FDM depends strongly on noise levels. Consequently, we identify the regimes at which FDM can provide a superior resolution even at moderate signal to noise ratios. Moreover, when individual peaks fail to be resolved either because of the small peak separation or high noise conditions, the FDM solution seems to preserve their cumulative intensity. This preservation of the true intensity seems to be very consistent across rather wide ranges of noise conditions and almost impervious to the peak separation.

Twelve Million Resolving Power on 4.7 T Fourier Transform Ion Cyclotron Resonance Instrument with Dynamically Harmonized Cell—Observation of Fine Structure in Peptide Mass Spectra

Resolving power of about 12,000 000 at m/z 675 has been achieved on low field homogeneity 4.7T magnet using a dynamically harmonized Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance (FT ICR) cell. Mass spectra of the fine structure of the isotopic distribution of a peptide were obtained and strong discrimination of small intensity peaks was observed in case of resonance excitation of the ions of the whole isotopic cluster to the same cyclotron radius. The absence of some peaks from the mass spectra of the fine structure was explained basing on results of computer simulations showing strong ion cloud interactions, which cause the coalescence of peaks with m/z close to that of the highest magnitude peak. The way to prevent peak discrimination is to excite ion clouds of different m/z to different cyclotron radii, which was demonstrated and investigated both experimentally and by computer simulations.

Instrumental Dependent Dissociations of n-Propyl/Isopropyl Phosphonate Isomers: Evaluation of Resonant and Non-Resonant Vibrational Activations

Structural elucidation and distinction of isomeric neurotoxic agents remain a challenge. Tandem mass spectrometry can be used for this purpose in particular if a "diagnostic" product ion is observed. Different vibrational activation methods were investigated to enhance formation of diagnostic ions through consecutive processes from O,O-dialkyl alkylphosphonates. Resonant and non-resonant collisional activation and infrared multiphoton dissociation (IRMPD) were used with different mass spectrometers: a hybrid quadrupole Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance (Qh-FTICR) and a hybrid linear ion trap-Orbitrap (LTQ/Orbitrap). Double resonance (DR) experiments, in ion cyclotron resonance (ICR) cell, were used for unambiguous determination of direct intermediate yielding diagnostic ions. From protonated n-propyl and isopropyl O-O-dialkyl-phosphonates, a diagnostic m/z 83 ion characterizes the isopropyl isomer. This ion is produced through consecutive dissociation processes. Conditions to favor its formation and observation using different activation methods were investigated. It was shown that with the LTQ, consecutive experimental steps of isolation/activation with modified trapping conditions limiting the low mass cut off (LMCO) effect were required, whereas with FT-ICR by CID and IRMPD the diagnostic ion detection was provided only by one activation step. Among the different investigated activation methods it was shown that by using low-pressure conditions or using non-resonant methods, efficient and fast differentiation of isomeric neurotoxic agents was obtained. This work constitutes a unique comparison of different activation modes for distinction of isomers showing the instrumental dependence characteristic of the consecutive processes. New insights in the dissociation pathways were obtained based on double-resonance IRMPD experiments using a FT-ICR instrument with limitation at low mass values.

Absorption‐mode spectra on the dynamically harmonized Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance cell

The recently designed dynamically harmonized Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance (FT-ICR) cell creates a more harmonized electric field for the detection of the cyclotron motion of ions and prolongs the ion transient from seconds to minutes. In order to achieve its best performance, phase correction was applied in the spectra, and new advantages of the absorption-mode were revealed. Spectra were acquired from both simple standard and complex mixtures using either narrowband or broadband mode, and the data were processed to compare the performance of the spectra in magnitude and absorption-mode. The research shows that phase correction works well with data from Nikolaev's new cell, which produces the maximum improvement in resolving power (2×), and improves the match with the theoretical intensities of the isotopic peaks. In addition, the harmonic peaks can be diagnosed immediately in the absorption-mode. The manuscript demonstrates absorption-mode spectra from Nikolaev's ICR cell, which will be of interest to the community. The improved relative peak intensities and immediate identification of harmonic peaks will facilitate data interpretation.

Fine Structure in Isotopic Peak Distributions Measured Using a Dynamically Harmonized Fourier Transform Ion Cyclotron Resonance Cell at 7 T

The fine structure of isotopic peak clusters in mass spectra of reserpine and substance P are measured using Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry at a 7 T magnetic field. The resolved peaks in the fine structure consist of (13)C, (15)N, (17)O, (18)O, (2)H, (33)S, (34)S, and combinations of them. A recently introduced high-resolution ion cyclotron resonance cell (Nikolaev, E. N.; Boldin, I. A.; Jertz, R.; Baykut, G. J. Am. Soc. Mass Spectrom. 2011, 22, 1125-1133) is used in these experiments. The positions of the experimentally obtained fine structure peaks on the mass scale agree with the isotopic distribution simulations with ≤200 ppb error. Some deviation from the theoretical isotopic distribution is observed, less abundant peaks in the fine structure patterns are a little suppressed compared to the larger ones. We present a method for atomic composition determination using accurate mass data and fine isotopic structure of the mass spectrum. Our method combines the traditional atomic composition determination from accurate mass data by enumeration of all possible formulas within constraints defined a priori with the estimation of element coefficients from resolved isotopic structures. These estimated values allow one to narrow the search space for the composition and therefore to reduce the number of candidate formulas.

Ultra High Resolution Linear Ion Trap Orbitrap Mass Spectrometer (Orbitrap Elite) Facilitates Top Down LC MS/MS and Versatile Peptide Fragmentation Modes

Although only a few years old, the combination of a linear ion trap with an Orbitrap analyzer has become one of the standard mass spectrometers to characterize proteins and proteomes. Here we describe a novel version of this instrument family, the Orbitrap Elite, which is improved in three main areas. The ion transfer optics has an ion path that blocks the line of sight to achieve more robust operation. The tandem MS acquisition speed of the dual cell linear ion trap now exceeds 12 Hz. Most importantly, the resolving power of the Orbitrap analyzer has been increased twofold for the same transient length by employing a compact, high-field Orbitrap analyzer that almost doubles the observed frequencies. An enhanced Fourier Transform algorithm—incorporating phase information—further doubles the resolving power to 240,000 at m/z 400 for a 768 ms transient. For top-down experiments, we combine a survey scan with a selected ion monitoring scan of the charge state of the protein to be fragmented and with several HCD microscans. Despite the 120,000 resolving power for SIM and HCD scans, the total cycle time is within several seconds and therefore suitable for liquid chromatography tandem MS. For bottom-up proteomics, we combined survey scans at 240,000 resolving power with data-dependent collision-induced dissociation of the 20 most abundant precursors in a total cycle time of 2.5 s—increasing protein identifications in complex mixtures by about 30%. The speed of the Orbitrap Elite furthermore allows scan modes in which complementary dissociation mechanisms are routinely obtained of all fragmented peptides.

Electrically Compensated Fourier Transform Ion Cyclotron Resonance Cell for Complex Mixture Mass Analysis

Complex natural organic mixtures such as petroleum require ultrahigh mass spectral resolution to separate and identify thousands of elemental compositions. Here, we incorporate a custom-built, voltage-compensated ICR cell for Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry (FTICR MS), based on a prior design by Tolmachev to produce optimal mass resolution. The compensated ICR cell installed in a custom-built 9.4 T FTICR mass spectrometer consists of seven cylindrical segments with axial proportions designed to generate a dc trapping potential that approaches an ideal three-dimensional axial quadrupolar potential. However, the empirically optimized compensation voltages do not correspond to the most quadrupolar trapping field. The compensation electrodes minimize variation in the reduced cyclotron frequency by balancing imperfections in the magnetic and electric field. The optimized voltages applied to compensation electrodes preserve ion cloud coherence for longer transient duration by approximately a factor of 2, enabling separation and identification of isobaric species (compounds with the same nominal mass but different exact mass) common in petroleum, such as C(3) vs SH(4) (separated by 3.4 mDa) and SH(3)(13)C vs (12)C(4) (separated by 1.1 mDa). The improved performance of the ICR cell provides more symmetric peak shape and better mass measurement accuracy. A positive ion atmospheric pressure photoionization (APPI) petroleum spectrum yields more than 26,000 assigned peaks, Fourier-limited resolving power of 800,000 at m/z 500 (6.6 s transient duration), and 124 part per billion root mean square (rms) error. The tunability of the compensation electrodes is critical for optimal performance.

Initial Experimental Characterization of a New Ultra-High Resolution FTICR Cell with Dynamic Harmonization

A new Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance (FTICR) cell based on completely new principles of formation of the effective electric potential distribution in Penning type traps, Boldin and Nikolaev (Proceedings of the 58th ASMS Conference, 2010), Boldin and Nikolaev (Rapid Commun Mass Spectrom 25:122-126, 2011) is constructed and tested experimentally. Its operation is based on the concept of electric potential space-averaging via charged particle cyclotron motion. Such an averaging process permits an effective electric force distribution in the entire volume of a cylindrical Penning trap to be equal to its distribution in the field created by hyperbolic electrodes in an ideal Penning trap. The excitation and detection electrodes of this new cell are shaped for generating a quadratic dependence on axial coordinates of an averaged (along cyclotron motion orbit) electric potential at any radius of the cyclotron motion. These electrodes together with the trapping segments form a cylindrical surface like in a conventional cylindrical cell. In excitation mode this cell being elongated behaves almost like an open cylindrical cell of the same length. It is more effective in ion motion harmonization at larger cyclotron radii than a Gabrielse et al.-type (Int J Mass Spectrom Ion Processes 88:319-332, 1989) cylindrical cell with four compensation sections. A mass resolving power of more than twenty millions of reserpine (m/z 609) and more than one million of highly charged BSA molecular ions (m/z 1357) has been obtained in a 7T magnetic field.

Mass spectrometric stereoisomeric differentiation between α‐ and β‐ascorbic acid 2‐O‐glucosides. Experimental and density functional theory study

L-Ascorbic acid and two distinct anomers, namely the α-D-glucopyranosyl and β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→2)-L-ascorbic acid (stereoisomers), were studied within the scope of collision-induced dissociation (CID) experiments, performed by linear ion acceleration and collision with argon atoms inside a hexapole quadrupole hexapole ion beam guide, which is coupled to an ion cyclotron resonance (ICR) cell with a 12 Tesla magnet for high-resolution measurements. Loss of C(2)H(4)O(2) neutral from the [M-H](-) anion of L-ascorbic acid was observed. Density functional theory (DFT) calculations on the 6-311+G(2d,p)//6-31+G(d) level of theory reveal a new concerted mechanism for an intramolecular gas-phase rearrangement, through which the observed ejected neutral C(2)H(4)O(2) can take place. A similar rearrangement also occurs in the case of α- and β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→2)-L-ascorbic acid. For the α isomer, only homolytic glycoside fragmentation was observed. For the β isomer, both homolytic and heterolytic glycoside cleavages were possible. The mechanisms behind all observed fragmentation pathways were fully understood by the implementation of accurate DFT calculations. Stereoisomeric differentiation between α and β isomers of the L-ascorbic acid-2-O-glucoside could be revealed by tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) experiments and were explained theoretically.

Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance cell with dynamic harmonization of the electric field in the whole volume by shaping of the excitation and detection electrode assembly

A new principle of formation of the effective electric field distribution in a Penning trap is presented. It is based on the concept of electric potential space averaging via charged particle cyclotron motion. The method of making hyperbolic-type field distribution in the whole volume of a cylindrical Penning trap is developed on the basis of this new principal. The method is based on subdividing the cell cylindrical surface into segments with shapes producing quadratic dependence on axial coordinate of an averaged (along cyclotron motion orbit) electric potential at any radius of cyclotron motion. The cell performance is compared in digital experiments with the performance of a Gabrielse-type cylindrical cell with four compensation electrodes and is shown to be more effective in ion motion harmonization at higher cyclotron radii and axial oscillation amplitude.

ChemInform Abstract: Size Distribution Studies of Sputtered Transition Metal Cluster Ions by Fourier Transform Ion Cyclotron Resonance Mass Spectrometry

Mass spectra of various metal cluster ions, mainly of transition metals are presented. These clusters were sputtered by an external 20 keV Xe+ ion source and detected with a Fourier transform mass spectrometer (FT-MS). Cluster ions could be efficiently trapped in the ion cyclotron resonance cell (ICR-cell). In the case of indium, for instance, clusters containing more than 100 atoms could be observed. The sensitivity of our instrument was sufficient to even detect Au+85 cluster ions with mass 16745 u. “Magic numbers” are observed in the cluster cation distributions of indium and the d10S1 metals copper, silver and gold.

Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometer with coaxial multi‐electrode cell (‘O‐trap’): first experimental demonstration

The conceptual design of the O-trap Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance (FT-ICR) cell addresses the speed of analysis issue in FT-ICR mass spectrometry. The concept of the O-trap includes separating the functions of ion excitation and detection between two different FT-ICR cell compartments. The detection compartment of the O-trap implements additional internal coaxial electrodes around which ions with excited cyclotron motion revolve. The expected benefits are higher resolving power and the lesser effect of the space charge. In this work we present the first experimental demonstration of the O-trap cell and its features, including the high ion transfer efficiency between two distinct compartments of an ICR cell after excitation of the coherent cyclotron motion. We demonstrate that utilization of the multiple-electrode detection in the O-trap provides mass resolving power enhancement (achieved over a certain time) equal to the order of the frequency multiplication. In an O-trap installed in a 5 T desk-top cryogen-free superconducting magnet, the resolving power of R = 80,000 was achieved for bradykinin [M + 2H](2+) (m/z 531; equivalent to 100,000 when recalculated for m/z 400) in 0.2 s analysis time (transient length), and R = 300,000 at m/z 531 for a 1 s transient. In both cases, detection on the third multiple of the cyclotron frequency was implemented. In terms of the acquisition speed at fixed resolving power, such performance is equivalent to conventional FT-ICR detection using a 15 T magnet.

Visible photodissociation spectroscopy of PAH cations and derivatives in the PIRENEA experiment

The electronic spectra of gas-phase cationic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), trapped in the Fourier Transform Ion Cyclotron Resonance cell of the PIRENEA experiment, have been measured by multiphoton dissociation spectroscopy in the 430–480 nm spectral range using the radiation of a mid-band optical parametric oscillator laser. We present here the spectra recorded for different species of increasing size, namely the pyrene cation ( C 16 H 10 + ) , the 1-methylpyrene cation ( CH 3 C 16 H 9 + ) , the coronene cation ( C 24 H 12 + ) , and its dehydrogenated derivative C 24 H 10 + . The experimental results are interpreted with the help of time-dependent density functional theory calculations and analysed using spectral information on the same species obtained from matrix isolation spectroscopy data. A kinetic Monte Carlo code has also been used, in the case of pyrene and coronene cations, to estimate the absorption cross-sections of the measured electronic transitions. Gas-phase spectra of highly reactive species such as dehydrogenated PAH cations are reported for the first time.

Exploring rearrangements along the fragmentation of glutaric acid negative ion: a combined experimental and theoretical study

Glutaric acid, a common short-chain aliphatic dicarboxylic acid, was investigated in the negative ion mode by subjecting its [M-H](-) ion to collision-induced dissociation (CID) experiments in an infinity ion cyclotron resonance (ICR) cell coupled to a hexapole-quadrupole-hexapole ion guide. A 12 Tesla magnet was used for high-resolution measurements. Two distinctive main pathways were observed in the MS/MS spectrum. The fragmentation pathways were also thoroughly investigated in a density functional theory (DFT) study involving a B3LYP/6-311+G(2d,p)//B3LYP/6-311+G(d,p) level of theory. Elimination of CO(2) from the [M-H](-) ion of the dicarboxylic acid takes place in a concerted mechanism, by which a 1,5 proton shift occurs from the intact carboxyl group to the methylene moiety located in the alpha position relative to the deprotonated carboxyl group. This concerted mechanism stabilizes the terminal negative charge and deprotonates the second carboxylic acid group. Water elimination from the [M-H](-) ion does not take place by means of a simple proton removal from the alpha methylene group - and OH(-) release from the carboxylate group to abstract an additional alpha proton thus leading to the formation of a deprotonated ketene anion. In the case of this dicarboxylic acid, a new mechanism was found for water elimination, which differs from that known for aliphatic monocarboxylic acids. An intramolecular interaction between the deprotonated and the intact carboxyl groups plays a key role in making a new energetically favourable mechanism. The DFT study also reveals that a combined loss of CO2 and H2O in the form of H2CO3 is possible.

PapA3 Is an Acyltransferase Required for Polyacyltrehalose Biosynthesis in Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Mycobacterium tuberculosis possesses an unusual cell wall that is replete with virulence-enhancing lipids. One cell wall molecule unique to pathogenic M. tuberculosis is polyacyltrehalose (PAT), a pentaacylated, trehalose-based glycolipid. Little is known about the biosynthesis of PAT, although its biosynthetic gene cluster has been identified and found to resemble that of the better studied M. tuberculosis cell wall component sulfolipid-1. In this study, we sought to elucidate the function of papA3, a gene from the PAT locus encoding a putative acyltransferase. To determine whether PapA3 participates in PAT assembly, we expressed the protein heterologously and evaluated its acyltransferase activity in vitro. The purified enzyme catalyzed the sequential esterification of trehalose with two palmitoyl groups, generating a diacylated product similar to the 2,3-diacyltrehalose glycolipids of M. tuberculosis. Notably, PapA3 was selective for trehalose; no activity was observed with other structurally related disaccharides. Disruption of the papA3 gene from M. tuberculosis resulted in the loss of PAT from bacterial lipid extracts. Complementation of the mutant strain restored PAT production, demonstrating that PapA3 is essential for the biosynthesis of this glycolipid in vivo. Furthermore, we determined that the PAT biosynthetic machinery has no cross-talk with that for sulfolipid-1 despite their related structures.

Collisional activation of ions by off-resonance irradiation in ion cyclotron resonance spectrometry

Collisional activation of ions in the ion cyclotron resonance (ICR) cell by short off-resonance burst irradiation (ORBI) was studied by time-resolved photodissociation of the meta-bromotoluene radical cation. Off-resonance chirp or single-frequency burst was applied for 2 ms to the probe ion in the presence of Ar buffer gas. The amount of internal energy imparted to the probe ion by collision under ORBI was precisely determined by time-resolved photodissociation spectroscopy. The rate of unimolecular dissociation of the probe ion following the photolysis at 532 nm was measured by monitoring the real-time appearance of the C 7H 7 + product ion. The internal energy of the probe ion was extracted from the known rate-energy curve. To help understand the collisional activation of an ion under ORBI, we simulated the radial trajectory of the ion using Green's method. The calculated radial kinetic energy was converted to the collision energy in the center-of-mass frame, and the collision frequency was estimated by using a reactive hard-sphere collision model with an ion-induced dipole potential. Both experiments and trajectory simulations suggest that chirp irradiation leads to less collisional activation of ions than other waveforms.

Crystal Structure of Epiphyas postvittana Takeout 1 with Bound Ubiquinone Supports a Role as Ligand Carriers for Takeout Proteins in Insects

Takeout (To) proteins are found exclusively in insects and have been proposed to have important roles in various aspects of their physiology and behavior. Limited sequence similarity with juvenile hormone-binding proteins (JHBPs), which specifically bind and transport juvenile hormones in Lepidoptera, suggested a role for To proteins in binding hydrophobic ligands. We present the first crystal structure of a To protein, EpTo1 from the light brown apple moth Epiphyas postvittana, solved in-house by the single-wavelength anomalous diffraction technique using sulfur anomalous dispersion, and refined to 1.3 angstroms resolution. EpTo1 adopts the unusual alpha/beta-wrap fold, seen only for JHBP and several mammalian lipid carrier proteins, a scaffold tailored for the binding and/or transport of hydrophobic ligands. EpTo1 has a 45 angstroms long, purely hydrophobic, internal tunnel that extends for the full length of the protein and accommodates a bound ligand. The latter was shown by mass spectrometry to be ubiquinone-8 and is probably derived from Escherichia coli. The structure provides the first direct experimental evidence that To proteins are ligand carriers; gives insights into the nature of endogenous ligand(s) of EpTo1; shows, by comparison with JHBP, a basis for different ligand specificities; and suggests a mechanism for the binding/release of ligands.