Appearance Investment Research Articles

Translation and validation of the Swedish version of the Appearance Schemas Inventory-Revised and investigation of the modified three subscale structure in patients undergoing breast reconstruction.

Breast cancer can lead to changes in appearance and subsequent concerns about body image. This study aimed to translate the body investment instrument, Appearance Schemas Inventory-Revised (ASI-R), to Swedish, and perform a validation in women who underwent mastectomy and were awaiting breast reconstruction. The instrument was translated, and its psychometric properties were investigated according to current guidelines. Three hundred and ninety-seven women were eligible for the study, and 215 (54%) participants responded. An exploratory factor analysis (EFA) revealed that a three-factor structure was the most adequate solution. Three new subscales were suggested: body image investment cognition; breast and body image investment emotions; breast reflecting dysfunctional cognitive and emotional patterns of appearance investment and body image investment behaviors; breast reflecting positive ways of investing in body image. Consistent with previous findings, control over appearance is a central theme in women with breast cancer undergoing mastectomy and reconstruction. The obtained factor structure was considered similar to the original structure and three-factor solutions obtained from an American cohort of patients with breast cancer. The ASI-R has shown good psychometric properties in Swedish women undergoing mastectomy and reconstruction. Further studies on convergent validity and confirmatory factor analysis are required.

Comfortable in my skin, cozy with who I am? Exploring the link between BMI class and body dissatisfaction, appearance investment, and body appreciation

Comfortable in my skin, cozy with who I am? Exploring the link between BMI class and body dissatisfaction, appearance investment, and body appreciation

Medical tattooing as a complementary cosmetic intervention to reduce body-image distress and mental health symptoms in U.S. breast cancer survivors.

A review of the literature revealed a high incidence of body-image distress among breast cancer survivors who had surgery. This cross-sectional study examined the relationship between medical tattooing as a complementary cosmetic intervention and body-image distress and mental health outcomes among breast cancer survivors following surgery. We examined 330 post-surgical breast cancer survivors collected through a nationwide online survey in the U.S., pursuing two main objectives. First, we investigated body-image distress, depression and anxiety symptoms, and perceived stress in survivors who underwent breast cancer surgery, comparing those with medical tattooing (n = 89) and those without (n = 226). Second, we assessed the influence of the participant's surgery type on body-image distress, depression and anxiety symptoms, and perceived stress. Additionally, we evaluated whether individual factors, such as appearance investment, satisfaction with decision, and cosmetic expectation discrepancy, predicted the participant's body-image distress. Findings suggest that participants with medical tattoos reported significantly lower body-image distress, depression and anxiety symptoms, and perceived stress compared to those without medical tattoos. The participant's surgery type did not significantly predict body-image distress, depression or anxiety symptoms, or perceived stress. However, participants who reported greater appearance investment endorsed higher body-image distress. Participants who reported higher satisfaction with their treatment decisions and lower cosmetic expectation discrepancy endorsed lower body-image distress. Medical tattooing may be a valuable tool in improving body-image distress and mental health for those who wish to pursue it, but more research is needed. Empirical studies supporting the mental health benefits of medical tattooing among survivors are crucial to standardize insurance coverage and promote its inclusion as a complementary intervention across insurance providers nationwide. This complementary intervention should be considered using a patient-centered approach that aligns with the patient's values and preferences.

Appearance investment and intimacy: direct and indirect effects in the context of romantic relationships

Physical appearance is highly valued in Western society and has the potential to impact many domains of personal life, including romantic relationships. This study examined the direct effect of appearance investment on intimacy and indirect effects through perfectionist self-presentation presentation and relationship mindfulness, utilizing a Structural Equation Model approach. Appearance schemas are cognitive generalizations about the importance of physical appearance within one’s self-concept and contribute to cognitive and behavioral investment in appearance. Concern for appearance influences how individuals interact with others and process the world around them, thus it has the potential to influence relationship health. However, no study to date has investigated how appearance investment relates to key components of relationship functioning, such as intimacy, nor the mechanisms for these relations. We collected self-report data from 220 adults who were in a current romantic relationship and living in the United States. Findings showed that higher concern for appearance is negatively associated with intimate behavior through the mechanism of presenting as perfect within the relationship. This study illustrates the importance of examining how appearance investment may impact intimacy within romantic relationships, as well as the factors that mediate this relationship, providing implications for future research and social and interventional implications.

A qualitative investigation of tattooing as an adaptive appearance investment: positive body image and eating disorder recovery in a predominantly transgender and gender expansive sample

ABSTRACT Tattooed individuals often express the positive effects of wearing body art toward improved self-image and confidence. This research builds on prior data exploring the positive effects of tattooing and investigates how tattoos impact one’s relationship to eating disorder (ED) recovery and body image. We held three focus groups lasting 60 minutes each, recruiting participants via purposive snowball sampling (n = 15), with additional opportunities to respond to focus group prompts asynchronously. Eligible participants were individuals with lived experience of an ED, self-identified as being in recovery, had three or more tattoos, and spoke English. Participants predominantly held gender-expansive (n = 4 Non-Binary, n = 3 Genderqueer, n = 3 Cisgender Women, n = 3 Transgender, n = 2 Transmasculine, n = 2 Gender Non-Conforming, n = 2 Intersex, n = 1 Cisgender Man) and non-heterosexual identities. Focus groups were held between April 2021 and July 2023 and followed a semi-structured interview format. Primary analyses focused on participants’ responses to open-ended prompts regarding how they understood the relationships between tattooing, body image, and ED recovery. Thematic analysis identified four core themes: Tattooing allowing for embodiment, tattooing allowing for recovery-oriented behaviors, tattooing enabling positive body image, and tattooing facilitating empowerment. An overarching message was that tattooing is a therapeutic and transformative process, allowing for self-determination. Participants indicated that tattooing can be experienced as a powerful mechanism for behavioral change and shifts in relationship to one’s body. Participants expressed that tattooing can be an effective route towards both gender euphoria and body liberation, enhancing one’s ability to maintain ED recovery.

Conformity of Female College Students on Feminine Norms

Gender norms persist and continue to draw generalized expectations of the sexes. Consequently, women must fulfill these expectations to be regarded and valued. The current research was designed to examine the links between women and conformity to the present feminine norms and determine the magnitude of their conformity when grouped according to college department, religion, sexual orientation, and socioeconomic status. Female college student respondents (356) completed the CFNI-45 scale, which measures their conformity to the nine sub-facets of feminine norms. As hypothesized, women's conformity is influenced by their accorded groups. Z-scores and ANOVA were used to determine the conformity level of female colleges and the difference in conformity between groups. The study revealed that female college students are average in conformity to sub-facets of thinness, investment in appearance, modesty, relational, involvement with children, sweet and nice, and sexual fidelity. In between average and above average to domestic norms and above-average conformity to romantic relationship norms. Religion, sexual orientation, and socioeconomic status are linked to conformity to feminine norms. Results may contribute significant literature to understand women's conformity and the weight of gender norms.

Appearance between professionalism and work-related stress among marketing employees.

Appearance and body language are key components of non-verbal communication and play an important role in the service and marketing sector. The aim was to explore experiences and perceptions of appearance issues related to work among employees in the marketing sector in Sweden. Interviews were conducted with 15 marketing and communication employees (five males, ten females), at multinational companies and a university. Thematic analyses were conducted, and content was organised in two themes with sub-themes: 1. Appearance from a resource perspective (Appearance benefits; Physical activity resources; Age benefits). 2. Appearance from a demand perspective (Adaptation to gender roles; Investment in appearance; Adaptation to situation and culture). The findings showed that appearance was perceived as a resource for professionalism, work engagement and career in various ways. Appearance-related issues were not considered on organisational work level, but employees perceived unspoken demands to look good and appropriate to represent the company brand. The employees spent a considerable amount of time, money, and effort on appearance. Appearance creates dualistic questions and points out several dilemmas that the individual struggle to solve, which creates stress in work. The character of unspoken demands on appearance and absent communication on organisational level make the stress-coping strategies complicated and the stress coping is mostly left for the individual to handle. A gender difference shows that compared to men, women more often experience negative stress generated by appearance-related issues in work. Education and actions at the managerial level of companies are needed.

Body image assessment of fitness centers´ members & behavioral intentions: can we actually achieve members´ retention?

The concept of body image is multidimensional and concerns the attitude of each person towards their body and their appearance. The aim of this research was to study how Greek fitness center members evaluate their body image, and whether this evaluation is differentiated in terms of gender, age and BMI. Moreover, the study aimed to survey whether fitness center members’ body image may predict their intention to maintain their fitness center membership. The research sample consisted of 220 adult members of fitness centers in a Greek city. For the needs of this research, the MBSRQ-Appearance scale was used (Cash, 2000), including 4 factors: i) satisfaction with appearance (7 items), ii) investment in appearance (12 items) iii) anxiety with appearance and weight (4 items) iv) weight self-categorization (2 items) and v) satisfaction with body parts (9 items). The MBSRQ has been previously adapted to a Greek population with satisfactory validity results. For the intention to continue participating in a fitness center, one question based on the Theory of Planned Behavior was used: I will use the fitness center services again next year. All responses were given on a five-point Likert scale. For the needs of this research, the questionnaire gathered additional demographic characteristics of the sample’s gender, age and Body Mass Index (BMI). No statistical differences of the body image evaluation occurred depending on the sample’s sex and age. Instead, differences emerged in the way members of the sample perceived their body image, and more specifically their “Self-categorization of weight” depending on whether they were classified as "normal" based on their BMI, "overweight" or "obese". As for the intention to continue their membership, it may be predicted by the Satisfaction with body parts factor. Attracting clients to fitness services should stop focusing on promoting a fit and flawless body, encouraging people who underestimate their body image to take advantage of their services. Key Words: fitness centers, body image, customer intentions, fitness center members

The relationship between problematic Instagram use and eating disorders psychopathology: an explanatory structural equation model

An emerging body of research has evidenced the negative influence of using and being exposed to social networking sites (SNSs) on body image. Furthermore, it has been postulated that SNS use might be related with onset and persistence of eating disorders (EDs) psychopathology. The aim of the present study is to evaluate the complex interplay between problematic Instagram use (PIU) (conceptualized as a potential behavioral addiction comprising withdrawal, conflict, tolerance, salience, mood modification and relapse) and ED psychopathology, by means of an explanatory structural equation model. We hypothesized that PIU would be associated with ED symptoms through the mediating role of appearance comparison, individual psychological investment in physical appearance, and body uneasiness. A sample of 386 young female participants (Mage = 26.04 ± 6.73) was recruited, of which 152 had received a diagnosis of ED. ED patients used Instagram more than the control group and showed higher levels of PIU. Results from structural equation modeling (fit indices: χ2 = 44.54, df = 19, p < 0.001; RMSEA = 0.059; CFI = 0.98; SRMR = 0.02) showed that PIU predicted appearance comparison and psychological investment in physical appearance, which in turn predicted body uneasiness. In turn, body uneasiness predicted ED psychopathology and interpersonal difficulties. Our model provides a useful account of how eating disorder symptoms could be triggered and maintained by an addictive use of Instagram.

Gender, beauty and the future of neoliberalism: aesthetic labour and women’s (anti)aspirationalism in Taiwan

Prior research suggests that gendered norms of appearance are particularly demanding in East Asian societies, including Taiwan. However, it remains unclear how the factor of temporality is related to women’s beautification. Relying on 62 in-depth interviews with Taiwanese women, we explore women’s mobilization of feminine appearance as an important aspirational strategy to gain various advantages and some women’s resistance to those bodily norms in Taiwan’s neoliberal context. The findings reveal that, in both cases, women’s attitude toward the future is determinant. The apprehension of appearance in the future could be illustrated by women’s concern for aging well, their meticulous preparation for maternity, and mothers’ investment in their daughters’ beauty practices. Paradoxically neoliberalism’s future-oriented temporality could result in a resistant attitude toward female beauty, since endless bodily work might lead to a withdrawal from the constant investment in female appearance.

“I’ll never sacrifice my well-being again:” The journey from negative to positive body image among women who perceive their body to deviate from societal norms

We conducted one-on-one interviews with 25 Canadian cisgender women who self-identified as having (a) a condition or characteristic causing their body to deviate from societal norms and (b) overcome a negative body image to develop a positive body image. Using coding reliability thematic analyses, we identified 12 themes (italicised) involving processes and experiences associated with shifts in body image. Women had moments that sparked and confirmed the importance of building positive body image (Enough is Enough). They experienced accepting Social Connections and Community and Accessed Critical Knowledge conducive to body positivity. They engaged in Joyful Movement, Adaptive Appearance Investment, and Joyful and Intuitive Eating. They identified how Changing Societal Norms, Becoming Older and Wiser, COVID-19 Pandemic, having Illnesses and Medical Conditions, Pregnancy and Motherhood, and Spirituality, Religion, and Nature affected their body image, values, and valued action. As women engaged in these processes and experiences, shifts occurred in their perceptions of their embodied selves in the world, represented by four “Bigger Lessons:” I Am More Than My Looks, I Am More Than My Body, I am More Than My Self, and I am Inherently Worthy of Love, Respect, and Joy. These findings can inform body image programmes and clinical interventions.

Fit and fun: Content analysis investigating positive body image dimensions of adolescents’ Facebook images

Body-positive content on social media offers a promising approach to promote positive body image (PBI). However, we need further research in order to better characterize and understand its nature. This study provides a content analysis of adolescents’ image-based posts on Facebook. We aimed to determine whether the theoretical six-facet conceptualization of PBI was reflected in adolescents’ posts, and whether there were different trends according to gender and time, over a 3-year period. A set of 6,503 images posted by 66 adolescents (51.5% male), were coded for PBI attributes. The results indicate that inner positivity and appreciation of body functionality through involvement in sports and fun activities were the most represented PBI facets. Conversely, imagery representing taking care of the body via healthy food/beverage choices, embracing body diversity, and filtering information in a body-preserving manner, was rarely used to project self-image on Facebook. Gender differences were only found in the appreciation of body functionality via sports activities (more prevalent in boys) and investment in appearance using benign methods, such as the use of cosmetics (more prevalent in girls). Posts addressing appearance and health-promoting self-care behaviors tended to increase in mid-adolescence. We conclude that the adolescents’ posts on Facebook reflected several PBI characteristics, with a particular focus on those that enhance a functional view of the body. Future social media and school-level initiatives should prioritize the development of attuned self-care as well as mechanisms to filter messages that could endanger PBI, while also increasing the visibility of the diverse bodies that exist in the world.

Fit and fun: Content analysis investigating positive body image dimensions of adolescents’ Facebook images

Body-positive content on social media offers a promising approach to promote positive body image (PBI). However, we need further research in order to better characterize and understand its nature. This study provides a content analysis of adolescents’ image-based posts on Facebook. We aimed to determine whether the theoretical six-facet conceptualization of PBI was reflected in adolescents’ posts, and whether there were different trends according to gender and time, over a 3-year period. A set of 6,503 images posted by 66 adolescents (51.5% male), were coded for PBI attributes. The results indicate that inner positivity and appreciation of body functionality through involvement in sports and fun activities were the most represented PBI facets. Conversely, imagery representing taking care of the body via healthy food/beverage choices, embracing body diversity, and filtering information in a body-preserving manner, was rarely used to project self-image on Facebook. Gender differences were only found in the appreciation of body functionality via sports activities (more prevalent in boys) and investment in appearance using benign methods, such as the use of cosmetics (more prevalent in girls). Posts addressing appearance and health-promoting self-care behaviors tended to increase in mid-adolescence. We conclude that the adolescents’ posts on Facebook reflected several PBI characteristics, with a particular focus on those that enhance a functional view of the body. Future social media and school-level initiatives should prioritize the development of attuned self-care as well as mechanisms to filter messages that could endanger PBI, while also increasing the visibility of the diverse bodies that exist in the world.

The relationship of body image and weight: A cross-sectional observational study of a Dutch female sample.

Body image concerns may play a role in weight changing behaviour. The objective of this study was to assess body image in different weight groups. Participants reported satisfaction with (AE) and investment in (AO) appearance, and the discrepancy between current and ideal body size (BS). These scores were compared between weight groups based on body-mass index (BMI) using analysis of variance. One-sample t-tests and Cohen's d effect sizes examined the magnitude of differences within each weight group relative to neutral midpoints of the scales; cluster analysis identified body image profiles. A total of 27 896 women were included in this study. AE scores were highest for people with underweight and normal weight, AO scores were highest for the underweight group and lowest in class III obesity, and BS scores were largest in the obese groups (all p < .001) Cluster analysis identified eight body image profiles. In people with obesity, the most prevalent profiles included a preference for a smaller body and low satisfaction with appearance, but differed in investment in appearance (low vs. high). Most people with underweight were allocated to profiles showing high investment in their appearance, preference of a larger body, but differences in satisfaction with appearance (neutral vs. high). While people with a higher BMI have on average more body image concerns, different body image profiles exist in all weight groups. Future research should examine whether and which individuals in terms of body image profile may benefit more from weight interventions.

Perfectionism and stereotype in plastic surgery

IntroductionThe concept of beauty has transformed through time and across the globe during specific events in history and continues to evolve.ObjectivesThis study will focus on how tendency toward perfectionism and stereotypes promoted by media influence beauty perception and the need of plastic surgery.MethodsIn this study we examined factors influencing attitudes toward plastic surgery among 23 women with an average 35 years old and the data were collected through three questionnaire: The abbreviated multidimensional perfectionism scale (MPS) is a 30-item measure separated into two 15-item subscales: self-oriented perfectionism and socially prescribed perfectionism; The abbreviated perfectionistic self-presentation scale (PSPS) is a 20-item measure divided into two ten-item subscales: perfectionistic self-promotion and non-display of imperfection. Participants’ perceptions of media messages about appearance issues have been assessed using 30 items of the Sociocultural Attitudes toward Appearance Questionnaire-3 (SATAQ-3). Sociocultural attitudes toward appearance, physical appearance perfectionism were considered as predictors of tendency toward plastic surgery.ResultsThe results showed that there is significant positive association between perfectionism, the influence of mass media and increased women’ s likelihood of undergoing plastic surgery.ConclusionsOur findings suggest firstly that a greater perfectionist tendency and psychological investment in physical appearance predict more favorable attitudes toward plastic surgery. Perfectionists women may choose plastic surgery as part of their need of bodily perfection. Secondly, the choice of plastic surgery depended on sociocultural attitudes toward physical appearance.DisclosureNo significant relationships.

Factors Associated with Likelihood to Undergo Cosmetic Surgical Procedures Among Young Adults in the United States: A Narrative Review.

Introduction/GoalsOver the past decade, cosmetic surgical procedures have become increasingly popular. This trend has been driven by procedural innovations as well as access to Internet and social media. Consequently, patients have been seeking cosmetic surgical procedures at younger ages. In this narrative review, studies assessing attitudes towards cosmetic surgical procedures among college-aged young adults were evaluated.MethodsA search identified 20 studies published from 2002 to 2021 that focused on cosmetic surgical procedures among young adults. Each study used survey-based data to determine attitudes, acceptance, interests, perceptions, and beliefs about cosmetic surgical procedures among college-aged students in the United States.ResultsThe proportion of college-aged participants who had undergone cosmetic surgical procedures ranged from 1.3% to 6.4% with surveys reporting that between 21 and 43% were interested in procedures in the future. In general, young women were more likely to express interest in cosmetic surgical procedures than young men. Studies consistently demonstrated an inverse relationship between body satisfaction and use of aesthetic procedures among this patient population. Other factors associated with acceptance and approval of cosmetic surgical procedures included importance of appearance to self-worth, concern with social standing and attractiveness, investment in appearance, media influence on body image, and positive attitudes towards celebrities. Exposure to cosmetic surgery advertising was correlated with increased approval of cosmetic surgical procedures, especially the perception that advertising influences “others” more than survey respondents themselves.ConclusionInterest in cosmetic surgical procedures continues to grow among young adults in the United States. In the future, this cohort is likely to become an increasingly important demographic to target for education, advertising, and research regarding cosmetic surgical procedures.

The Role of Self-Silencing and Appearance Investment in Heterosexually Experienced Women’s Body Dissatisfaction

Traditional socialization can lead to negative individual and relational outcomes for women including self-silencing and body dissatisfaction. We explored the relationship between these phenomena, particularly whether problematic appearance investment was an explanatory mechanism for body dissatisfaction within a context of self-silencing. Women students (N=116) aged 18-24 completed online surveys. More engagement in all domains of self-silencing was associated with higher body dissatisfaction. Problematic appearance investment mediated three of the four domains (externalized self-perception, care as self-sacrifice, divided self) with the other, silencing the self, directly associated with body dissatisfaction. When young women engaged in more relational self-silencing, they focused on their appearance as more integral to their identity, which predicted higher body dissatisfaction. These findings, based on women without eating disorder diagnoses, demonstrate one specific danger of relational self-silencing for women’s well-being. Encouraging self-affirmation may be a promising strategy to undermine these effects for women who engage in self-silencing.

Translation and validation of the Greek version of the Modified Weight Bias Internalization Scale in an adult population.

Weight bias internalization (WBI) has been identified as a global public health concern, which is associated with significant psychological and physical consequences. Despite increased interest in WBI worldwide, cross-cultural research is limited by the lack of availability of validated measures. The aim of the current study was therefore to translate into Greek and validate the Modified Weight Bias Internalization Scale (WBIS-M), the most widely used instrument in the measurement of WBI. An online convenience sample of 642 participants (364 women and 278 men) completed the Greek translation of the WBIS-M and validated the measures of satisfaction with appearance, investment in appearance, weight/appearance anxiety, body appreciation, dysfunctional eating habits and global self-esteem to assess convergent validity. Principal factor and confirmatory analyses revealed that the WBIS-M upheld its one-factor structure. The WBIS-M showed adequate internal consistency, convergent validity and 3-week test-retest reliability. These findings provide support for the cross-cultural equivalence of the WBIS-M and for the utility of this measure in Greek-speaking populations.

Appearance investment, coping strategies, and psychosocial adjustment in male patients with head and neck cancer

Background: This study examined the interrelationships among two facets of appearance investment (self-evaluative salience and motivational salience), appearance-related coping strategies, and psychosocial adjustment in male patients with head and neck cancer following physical appearance changes.Methods: It adopted a cross-sectional design; 136 male patients with stage I–III head and neck cancer were recruited. Self-reported scales were used to assess physical appearance changes due to cancer surgery and treatment, appearance investment, coping strategies, psychological distress, and disease-specific quality of life. Data were analyzed using path analysis.Results: Results showed that self-evaluative salience was directly and negatively associated with psychosocial adjustment, and motivational salience was indirectly and positively associated with psychosocial adjustment through coping strategies of less avoidance and greater positive rational acceptance.Discussion: This study also provides important information regarding the possible pathways of appearance investment and coping strategies in the psychosocial adjustment of male patients with head and neck cancer.

Selfie Appearance Investment and Peer Feedback Concern: Multi-Method Investigation of Adolescent Selfie Practices and Adjustment.

Sharing "selfies" on social media is common among adolescents. The frequency with which adolescents post selfies may be less important than behaviors and cognitions underlying selfie-posting, and these practices may differ by gender. This multi-method study explored selfie practices in a school-based sample of 639 adolescents (M age=17.6; 53.5% female). Participants completed self-report measures of selfie practices, body esteem, depressive symptoms, and peer behaviors. In addition, a subset of participants' social media pages (n = 245) were observationally-coded for numbers of selfies, followers, and likes. Factor analyses revealed two distinct selfie practices: selfie appearance investment and selfie peer feedback concern. Girls posted selfies more frequently, and reported greater levels of appearance investment and concern over peer feedback on selfies compared to boys. Multiple group structural equation models indicated that for boys and girls, selfie appearance investment was associated with depressive symptoms. For girls only, selfie peer feedback concern was associated with excessive reassurance-seeking and lower body esteem. No associations were revealed between observationally-coded measures of selfie-posting frequency and psychosocial outcomes. Overall, findings suggest that frequency of selfie-posting may be less relevant for understanding adolescent adjustment than investment in and concern over the selfie-posting experience.