Inverse Probability Weighted Regression Adjustment Research Articles

Sustaining beyond the production of cocoa for beans: The preference and impact of products from the cocoa husk

The cocoa pod husk, a waste in most cocoa farms, has recently received alternative uses in various industries. To cocoa farmers, potash and black soap are their main products from the husk. This alternative use presents an excellent opportunity for improving the livelihoods of cocoa farmers. Nevertheless, there is sparse evidence of farmers' willingness to produce black soap and its potential implication on their welfare. We employed a multistage sampling approach to close this gap to draw data from 150 cocoa farmers from Ahafo Ano North District, Ghana. We analysed the data with binary probit, ordered probit and Inverse Probability Weighted Regression Adjustment. We found that marital status, membership of FBO, knowledge of black soap production, and credit access influence farmers' willingness to produce (WTP) black soap. Again, gender, marital status, age, farm income, farming experience and knowledge of black soap have a significant but heterogeneous effect on the tipping point that stimulates farmers' willingness to accept (WTA) black soap production. The impact assessment revealed that black soap production has substantial welfare gains. Thus, it increases farmer's per capita expenditure. Therefore, stakeholders like the Cocoa Research Institute, Ghana COCOBOD and cocoa-licensed buying companies should invest in procuring portable ashing kilns at subsidised prices and train farmers on packaging and labelling to expedite, revitalise and modernise black soap production. Notwithstanding, future research could look at the profitability analysis of black soap production.

The Impact of Long-Term Finance on Job Quality, Investments and Firm Performance: Cross-Country Evidence

Despite its importance for development, long-term finance is particularly scarce in countries with lower income levels. This not only results in unrealized growth and employment creation, but may also undermine a broader shift towards better jobs. After all, many long-term investments comprise investments in labor that have the potential to contribute to improvements in job quality. This paper uses more than 17,000 firm-level observations from 73 mostly low- and middle-income countries to provide first empirical evidence of the extent to which LTF affects the quality of jobs. Additionally, it looks into effects on investments and firm performance. The findings, based on inverse probability weighted regression adjustment, indicate that long-term finance increases the likelihood of formal training by 4.4 to 4.8 percentage points, raises average wage by 4.1 percentage points and the share of permanent employees by 1.3 percentage points. Effects are also significant for investments in fixed assets and process innovation as well as for employment and sales growth. The fact that the positive effects on job quality increase with loan maturities underlines the importance of longer-term finance for better jobs. Despite several robustness checks, it cannot be ruled out completely that unobservable variables affect the estimation of effect sizes.

Assessing the Impact of Covid-19 in Mozambique in 2020

Taking advantage of the 2019/2020 Mozambican household budget survey, in the field both before and during the first phases of the Covid-19 pandemic, we assess the impact of Covid-19 on welfare in 2020, aiming to disentangle this impact from the effect of other shocks. Comparing a number of welfare metrics, and applying propensity score matching and inverse probability weighted regression adjustment approaches, we find that consumption levels are significantly lower and poverty rates substantially higher during the first phases of Covid-19 than in the pre-Covid-19 period. Moreover, the impact was greater in urban areas and accordingly in the more urbanised southern region. Non-food expenditures suffered relatively more than food expenditures, likely a coping strategy, while the impact on consumption levels was greater for people working in the secondary and tertiary sectors than for workers in the primary sector, mainly agriculture. Stunting among under-5 children also suffered. Only a limited number of countries have actual, collected in-person, survey data that span across the initial phases of the Covid-19 pandemic. Thus, the present analysis adds value to our understanding of the welfare consequences of Covid-19 in a low-income context, where automatic social safety nets were not in place during the early phases of the pandemic. More specifically, it helps in assessing the results of previous welfare impact simulations, compared to real data. Even though our main findings are broadly in line with existing estimates based on simulations or phone surveys, important differences between the predictions and the actual results emerge. We conclude that it is critically important for Mozambique and its development partners to develop stronger and more targeted policies and tools to respond to temporary shocks.

COMPARISON OF LONELINESS AND SOCIAL NETWORK BETWEEN OLDER ADULT CAREGIVERS AND NONCAREGIVERS

Abstract In ageing societies, more older adults are taking up informal caregiving roles. Caregivers, compared to non-caregivers, are found to have poorer psychosocial outcomes such as loneliness and social isolation in various studies. However, most of this research is not specific to older adult caregivers and does not account for selection bias into caregiving. We compare loneliness and social network between older adult caregivers and older adult non-caregivers in Singapore, applying inverse probability weighted regression adjustment (IPWRA), to address selection bias into caregiving, on data from a nationally representative longitudinal study of older adults. Those providing unpaid assistance to any person because of their health condition were considered as caregivers. Loneliness (score: 0-12; higher score=lonelier) and social network (0-60; higher score=greater network) were measured using validated scales. The relationship of caregiving status with loneliness and social network was estimated using IPWRA, controlling for multiple demographic and health characteristics. Of the 2639 respondents, 7.2% were caregivers. Older adult caregivers, versus non-caregivers, were more likely to experience loneliness (average treatment effect [ATE] β-coefficient for loneliness score: 0.328 (95% confidence interval: 0.011-0.645; p-value: 0.042); and odds ratio for being lonely: 1.080 (1.001-1.165); p-value: 0.047). However, they did not differ in terms of their social network (ATE β-coefficient for social network score: 1.456 (-0.405-3.316); p-value: 0.125). Our findings suggest that even with a similar extent of social network, older adult caregivers are at a higher risk of loneliness, i.e., perceived social isolation or relational deficits, compared to non-caregivers.

Does participation in innovation platform improve welfare? Insights from smallholder maize farmers in Ghana

This paper investigates the impact of participation in innovation platforms (IPs) on smallholder maize farmers’ welfare in the Brong Ahafo region of Ghana using data collected from 477 rural farm households. We employed the doubly robust inverse probability weighted regression adjustment method (IPWRA) and propensity score matching (PSM) approach to examine the impact of IP participation on yield, income, and per capita consumption expenditure. The empirical results show that age, farming experience, farm size, land ownership, and credit access are the main determinants of participation in IPs in Ghana. In addition, the results show that participation in IPs increases yields and household income and reduces per capita expenditure of smallholder maize farmers in Ghana. Furthermore, the advantages of engaging in the IPs go beyond the traditional extension service delivery approach. This highlights the importance of policymakers and agricultural development agencies in developing nations to establish policies that encourage the establishment of IPs and promote their involvement among small-scale farmers, resulting in better living standards.

Occupational feminization, gender, and wages: evidence from Thailand

This study examines the relationship between occupational feminization and wages in Thailand using the Thailand Labor Force Survey data (LFS) (2008-2017). Employing the Augmented Inverse Probability Weighting (AIPW) and the Inverse Probability Weighted Regression Adjustment (IPWRA) double robust matching techniques, this study investigates the effects of occupational feminization and the interaction effect of occupational feminization and gender on wages. The findings indicate that occupational feminization decreased wages in Thailand, and the negative effect weakened over time. While the gender wage gap persisted in feminized occupations over the years, there was a reduction in the gender wage gap in non-feminized occupations. The wage gap between females in feminized occupations and males in non-feminized occupations decreased over time, even though it remained larger than the overall gender wage gap. Male workers continued to take advantage and ride the “glass escalator” in both feminized and non-feminized occupations.

Soil and water conservation measures and rainfed agriculture in Telangana, India: Role of community and neighborhood conservation measures

Soil erosion is a significant problem in rain-fed areas in India. This study attempts to evaluate the causal effects of on-farm soil and water conservation (SWC) measures on farm profit and yield. The study uses the inverse-probability-weighted regression adjustment (IPWRA) method to assess the causal impact of SWC measures on agriculture output while controlling socioeconomic, institutional, and village-level characteristics. The results suggest a significant difference in overall agricultural profit, crop-wise profit, and crop-wise yields among the adopters and non-adopters of the SWC measures. The study highlights that there is a complementarity between the causal impact of community-level SWC measures and individual SWC measures on agricultural outcomes. Further, the neighbor’s adoption of SWC measures plays a pivotal role on farmer’s agricultural profits. The study highlights that farmer’s profit for rainfed crops such as maize further increases if their adjacent neighbors also undertake SWC measures. Such complementary effects, however, are not observed in case of irrigated crops such as paddy.

Outcomes of Trauma "Walk-Ins" in the American College of Surgeons Trauma Quality Program Database.

Outcomes of trauma "walk-in" patients (using private vehicles or on foot) are understudied. We compared outcomes of ground ambulance vs walk-ins, hypothesizing that delayed resuscitation and uncoordinated care may worsen walk-in outcomes. A retrospective analysis 2020 American College of Surgeons Trauma Quality Programs (ACS-TQP) databases compared outcomes between ambulance vs "walk-ins." The primary outcome was in-hospital mortality, excluding external facility transfers and air transports. Data was analyzed with descriptive statistics, bivariate, multivariable logistic regression, including an Inverse Probability Weighted Regression Adjustment with adjustments for injury severity and vital signs. The primary outcome for the 2019 (pre-COVID-19 pandemic) data was similarly analyzed. In 2020, 707,899 patients were analyzed, 556,361 (78.59%) used ambulance, and 151,538 (21.41%) were walk-ins. We observed differences in demographics, hospital attributes, medical comorbidities, and injury mechanism. Ambulance patients had more chronic conditions and severe injuries. Walk-ins had lower in-hospital mortality (850 (.56%) vs 23,131 (4.16%)) and arrived with better vital signs. Multivariable logistic regression models (inverse probability weighting for regression adjustment), adjusting for injury severity, demographics, injury mechanism, and vital signs, confirmed that walk-in status had lower odds of mortality. For the 2019 (pre-COVID-19 pandemic) database, walk-ins also had lower in-hospital mortality. Our results demonstrate better survival rates for walk-ins before and during COVID-19 pandemic. Despite limitations of patient selection bias, this study highlights the need for further research into transportation modes, geographic and socioeconomic factors affecting patient transport, and tailoring management strategies based on their mode of arrival.

Outcomes of Veterans Treated in Veterans Affairs Hospitals vs Non–Veterans Affairs Hospitals

Many veterans enrolled in the Veterans Affairs (VA) health care system have access to non-VA care through insurance and VA-purchased community care. Prior comparisons of VA and non-VA hospital outcomes have been limited to subpopulations. To compare outcomes for 6 acute conditions in VA and non-VA hospitals for younger and older veterans using VA and all-payer discharge data. This cohort study used a repeated cross-sectional analysis of hospitalization records for acute myocardial infarction (AMI), coronary artery bypass graft (CABG), gastrointestinal (GI) hemorrhage, heart failure (HF), pneumonia, and stroke. Participants included VA enrollees from 11 states at VA and non-VA hospitals from 2012 to 2017. Analysis was conducted from July 1, 2022, to October 18, 2023. Treatment in VA or non-VA hospital. Thirty-day mortality, 30-day readmission, length of stay (LOS), and costs. Average treatment outcomes of VA hospitals were estimated using inverse probability weighted regression adjustment to account for selection into hospitals. Models were stratified by veterans' age (aged less than 65 years and aged 65 years and older). There was a total of 593 578 hospitalizations and 414 861 patients with mean (SD) age 75 (12) years, 405 602 males (98%), 442 297 hospitalizations of non-Hispanic White individuals (75%) and 73 155 hospitalizations of non-Hispanic Black individuals (12%) overall. VA hospitalizations had a lower probability of 30-day mortality for HF (age ≥65 years, -0.02 [95% CI, -0.03 to -0.01]) and stroke (age <65 years, -0.03 [95% CI, -0.05 to -0.02]; age ≥65 years, -0.05 [95% CI, -0.07 to -0.03]). VA hospitalizations had a lower probability of 30-day readmission for CABG (age <65 years, -0.04 [95% CI, -0.06 to -0.01]; age ≥65 years, -0.05 [95% CI, -0.07 to -0.02]), GI hemorrhage (age <65 years, -0.04 [95% CI, -0.06 to -0.03]), HF (age <65 years, -0.05 [95% CI, -0.07 to -0.03]), pneumonia (age <65 years, -0.04 [95% CI, -0.06 to -0.03]; age ≥65 years, -0.03 [95% CI, -0.04 to -0.02]), and stroke (age <65 years, -0.11 [95% CI, -0.13 to -0.09]; age ≥65 years, -0.13 [95% CI, -0.16 to -0.10]) but higher probability of readmission for AMI (age <65 years, 0.04 [95% CI, 0.01 to 0.06]). VA hospitalizations had a longer mean LOS and higher costs for all conditions, except AMI and stroke in younger patients. In this cohort study of veterans, VA hospitalizations had lower mortality for HF and stroke and lower readmissions, longer LOS, and higher costs for most conditions compared with non-VA hospitalizations with differences by condition and age group. There were tradeoffs between better outcomes and higher resource use in VA hospitals for some conditions.

Does Participation in the “Grain for Green Program” Change the Status of Rural Men and Women? An Empirical Study of Northeast China

The Grain for Green (GfG) program is an afforestation project created by the Chinese Government to protect the environment. Farmers who participate in GfG return farmland to forest. Losing arable land means losing an income source, so farmers have to reorient their livelihood strategies, leading to potential changes in the gender division of labor. To assess gender differences in the impact of policies, we use indicators from the Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI), which measures the status of women relative to that of men. Using sex-disaggregated data from farmers in mountainous areas of northeast China and applying the inverse probability weighted regression adjustment (IPWRA) estimator, we found that the status of men and women had increased with GfG participation, but women’s status had improved more than men’s. However, this was not because of their smooth participation in the program, but because of its challenges. Their decision-making skills improved unexpectedly due to pressure to protect their interests. Rural women worried about their families’ livelihoods, so they tried to improve their family welfare and diversified their income sources. In this process, women had more interactions with outside communities. Our results underline the strong need to continuously monitor the gender impacts of environmental policies.

Evaluating the impact of improved crop varieties in the Sahelian farming systems of Niger

Most people in Niger still rely heavily on agriculture as a source of income. However, low productivity, climate change, soil infertility, pests, and diseases are challenges faced by this sector. As a result, the nation suffers from a severe problem of food insecurity. Many investigations indicate that adopting improved crop varieties(ICVs) increases agricultural productivity. Using information gathered from 1784 farmers, this study assesses the effects of adopting improved crop varieties (ICVs) on household welfare. To analyze the data, we employ endogenous switching regression (ESR) and inverse probability-weighted regression adjustment (IPWRA) techniques. The analysis shows that the ICVs adoption significantly improves household income and food access in Niger's Sahelian region. The ESR model's average treatment effects estimate shows that the ICVs adoption raised per capita income, food expenditure, and household dietary diversity score (HDDS) by 75 %, 1.81 %, and 36.49 %, respectively. The IPWRA model yields similar results.Therefore we conclude that adopting ICVs has substantial dynamic benefits that improve household welfare in Sahel Niger by increasing their probability of escaping poverty, food insecurity, and malnutrition. The farmer's knowledge of improved crop varieties significantly influenced favorably the decision to adopt, suggesting that intensifying dissemination and encouraging the promotion of drought-tolerant crop varieties among farmers, development agencies, researchers, and policymakers could be a crucial plan of action to combat poverty, food insecurity, and malnutrition in the Sahelian region.

The Role of Rural Credit in Agricultural Technology Adoption: The Case of Boro Rice Farming in Bangladesh

Rice agriculture provides millions of households with a steady source of income and employment. However, for small and marginal farmers, the exorbitant cost of production inputs presents a formidable obstacle in their pursuit of acquiring it. Credit constraints are a significant impediment to the adoption of agricultural technologies. Therefore, this paper identifies the determinant of access to rural credit and its impact on Boro rice production technology adoption in Bangladesh using cross-sectional data. The study employed probit regression, propensity score matching (PSM), inverse probability weighting (IPW), and inverse probability weighted regression adjustment (IPWRA) techniques. The findings indicate that age, family size, working members, and involvement in safety net programs negatively and significantly influence access to rural credit, while earning persons in the family, literacy, rice farming experience, remittance, and total income positively influence access to rural credit. The positive and significant ATT values suggested that access to rural credit has a positive and significant effect on technology adoption and the level of technology use. It was also found that access to rural credit has a heterogeneous effect. In particular, non-government organization (NGO) credit has a more significant impact on technology adoption than formal bank credit. Access to credit and the adoption of agricultural technologies can be greatly improved with the help of a location-specific rural credit policy and strong monitoring from the formal banking sector.

Linking Spanish wine farmers to international markets: Is direct export better than indirect export in improving farm performance?

Selecting an appropriate export channel is one of farmers' most important strategic decisions as it determines farm performance. Although direct and indirect exports are two important channels linking farmers to international markets, little is known about whether direct export is better than indirect export in improving farm performance. This study addresses this research gap by analyzing the impact of export channel choice on wine export farm performance, utilizing data collected from 479 wine-exporting farmers from Spain. An inverse probability-weighted regression adjustment estimator addresses the selection bias issue of export channel choice. The results show that the wine export price received by the direct exporters is significantly lower than that received by the indirect exports. Using domestic intermediaries for exportation (i.e. indirect export) can reduce information asymmetry and transaction costs, which enable indirect wine exporters to sell their products at higher prices. However, there are no significant differences between direct and indirect exporters in export volume, value, diversity, and satisfaction. The findings highlight that direct and indirect exports do not generate differentiated profits, and wine farmers should choose one of them that can facilitate their access to international markets.

Educational Outcomes for Children at 7 to 9 Years of Age After Birth at 39 vs 40 to 42 Weeks’ Gestation

Birth at 39 weeks' gestation is common and thought to be safe for mother and neonate. However, findings of long-term outcomes for children born at this gestational age have been conflicting. To evaluate the association of birth at 39 weeks' gestation with childhood numeracy and literacy scores at ages 7 to 9 years compared with birth at 40 to 42 weeks' gestation. In this Australian statewide, population-based cohort study using a causal inference framework based on target trial emulation, perinatal data on births between January 1, 2005, and December 31, 2011, were linked to educational outcomes at 7 to 9 years of age. Statistical analyses were performed from December 2022 to June 2023. Birth at 39 weeks' gestation compared with birth at 40 to 42 weeks' gestation. Numeracy and literacy outcomes were assessed at 7 to 9 years of age using Australian National Assessment Program-Literacy and Numeracy data and defined by overall z score across 5 domains (grammar and punctuation, reading, writing, spelling, and numeracy). Multiple imputation and doubly robust inverse probability weighted regression adjustment were used to estimate population average causal effects. The study population included 155 575 children. Of these children, 49 456 (31.8%; 24 952 boys [50.5%]) were born at 39 weeks' gestation and were compared with 106 119 (68.2%; 52 083 boys [49.1%]) born at 40 to 42 weeks' gestation. Birth at 39 weeks' gestation was not associated with altered educational outcomes for children aged 7 to 9 years compared with their peers born at 40 to 42 weeks' gestation (mean [SE] z score, 0.0008 [0.0019] vs -0.0031 [0.0038]; adjusted risk difference, -0.004 [95% CI, -0.015 to 0.007]). Each educational domain was investigated, and no significant difference was found in grammar and punctuation (risk difference [RD], -0.006 [95% CI, -0.016 to 0.005]), numeracy (RD, -0.009 [95% CI, -0.020 to 0.001]), spelling (RD, 0.001 [95% CI, -0.011 to 0.0013]), reading (RD, -0.008 [95% CI, -0.019 to 0.003]), or writing (RD, 0.006 [95% CI, -0.005 to 0.016]) scores for children born at 39 weeks' gestation compared with those born at 40 to 42 weeks' gestation. Birth at 39 weeks' gestation also did not increase the risk of scoring below national minimum standards in any of the 5 tested domains. Using data from a statewide linkage study to emulate the results of a target randomized clinical trial, this study suggests that there is no evidence of an association of birth at 39 weeks' gestation with numeracy and literacy outcomes for children aged 7 to 9 years.

Does nutrition knowledge training improve dietary diversity and nutrition intake? Insights from rural China

AbstractImproving dietary diversity and nutrition intake among rural households is essential to promote sustainable rural development. In this study, we examine whether nutrition knowledge training increases rural households' dietary diversity, nutrition intake, and total calorie intake. We consider three macronutrients (proteins, fats, and carbohydrates) and three micronutrients (vitamin C, iron, and zinc) to capture nutrition intake. The doubly robust inverse probability weighted regression adjustment estimator is employed to estimate survey data of 765 rural households collected by the Institute of Food and Nutrition Development, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of China. The results show that nutrition knowledge training enhances household dietary diversity, improves the intake of macronutrients in terms of proteins and fats and micronutrients in terms of zinc, and increases total calorie intake. In addition, the intake of nutrients and calories of males responds to nutrition knowledge training while that of females does not. The dietary diversity of females increases with nutrition knowledge training, whereas that of males is unaffected. {EconLit Citations: I12, I18, Q12, E24}.

Carbon farming training and welfare: Evidence from Northern Ghana

Carbon farming, particularly soil carbon climate strategies, has emerged as a popular tool in addressing climate change and variability in worldwide agriculture. Yet, there is a paucity of evidence on its application, and even more so, limited evidence exists on the welfare impacts in developing countries, where the negative impacts of climate change and variability remain disproportionately higher. One potential option of increasing adoption of carbon farming practices is training for farm households to produce their own organic inputs from locally available resources. This study evaluates a biochar and compost production training undertaken in three semi-arid regions of Northern Ghana using inverse probability weighting regression adjustment (IPWRA) model. Sensitivity analyses are performed by employing least absolute shrinkage and selection operator treatment effects (TELASSO) method. The results show that participation in carbon farming training increased the adoption of compost and perception on soil quality. We also find that the intervention had statistically significant positive effects on agricultural productivity (measured as maize yield) and welfare outcomes (such as increase in per capita household expenditure and reduction in poverty status). These positive results show the importance of using soil carbon climate strategies in improving the welfare of farm households in developing countries. The study recommends that carbon farming capacity building initiatives should be scaled up to improve farm productivity and poverty reduction of farm households in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA).

Revisiting the wage effects of vocational education and training (VET) over the life cycle: The case of Thailand

This paper estimates the potential impact of vocational education on wage differentials between vocational and general graduates over the life cycle in Thailand, using the national Labor Force Survey (LFS) from 2017 to 2022. The returns to vocational education are analyzed at three levels of education: upper secondary, diploma, and college. The inverse-probability-weighted regression adjustment (IPWRA) method is implemented to account for non-random assignment in choosing the academic track. The results show, on average, that vocational educated workers receive higher wages than those with general education, but it has no significant differences by comparing to university graduates in science and engineering with the same years of education. Additionally, the wage premiums associated to vocational education tend to increase at older ages. The empirical evidence corroborates the crucial role of vocational education in increasing long-term earnings and the number of technical-skilled workers in the Thai labor market.

Input credit scheme, farm productivity and food security nexus among smallholder rice farmers: evidence from North East Ghana

PurposeThis study examined the impact of the Input Credit Scheme (ICS) by the Integrated Water Management and Agriculture Development (IWAD) on the productivity and food security of smallholder rice farmers in Ghana.Design/methodology/approachCross-sectional data from 250 rice farming households in the Mamprugu Moagduri district of the North East Region obtained from a multi-stage sampling technique were used for the study. Inverse Probability Weighted Regression Adjustment (IPWRA), Propensity Score Matching (PSM) and Kendall's coefficient of concordance were the methods of analysis employed.FindingsEmpirical results show that education, rice farming experience, dependency ratio, FBO membership, farm size and farm age were the significant factors influencing participation in the input credit scheme (ICS). Also, participants had an average rice productivity of 1,476.83 kg/ha, whereas non-participants had 1,131.81 kg/ha implying that participants increased their productivity by about 30%. In addition, the study revealed that participant households increased their household dietary diversity (HDDS) by 0.45 points amounting to about 8% diversity in their diets. High-interest rates associated with credit received, the short periods of credit repayment and the high cost of inputs provided under the scheme were the most challenging constraints associated with partaking in the ICS.Practical implicationsThe available literature on agricultural interventions have predominantly emphasized input credit as a key factor for improving cropt productivity and food security of smallholders. This study provides compelling evidence that participation in ICSs can result in substantial benefits for agricultural development, as evidenced by increased productivity leading to improved food security. The significance of these findings is highlighted by the fact that, through participation in input credit schemes, smallholder rice farmers in many developing countries see substantial improvement in their capacity to access productive resources, thereby improving their productivity, while simultaneously reducing food insecurity.Social implicationsLeveraging on the improved productivity of participants in the ICS, this study advocates that such input credit schemes should scale up to more food-insecure farming communities in Ghana.Originality/valueThe study uses a doubly robust econometric approach to evaluate the impact of ICS on smallholder rice farmers' productivity and food security in Ghana, making it the first of its kind. The findings offer a solid basis for future research and provide guidance for policymakers looking to boost agricultural development in Ghana.

Clean energy use and subjective and objective health outcomes in rural China

This study analyses the impact of clean energy use on rural residents' subjective health outcomes (self-reported health status, health change, and discomfort) and objective health outcomes (bronchitis, asthma, medical expenditure, and fitness expenditure). Using an inverse probability-weighted regression adjustment estimator and the 2018 China Family Panel Studies data, we address the selection bias associated with clean energy use and estimate the treatment effects. The empirical results show that farmers using clean energy (liquid gas, natural gas, methane, solar energy, or electricity) as the primary cooking fuel report improved health, a lower probability of physical discomfort, and higher fitness expenditures than non-users. Clean energy use does not significantly affect self-reported health, the probability of having bronchitis and asthma, or medical expenditures. The health effects of clean energy use on men differ from those on women; they also vary across different economic strata. We also find that farmers’ decisions to use clean energy are positively associated with their educational level, household income, whether they rent farmland, and their happiness levels but are negatively related to their age, family size, whether they own real estate, and the ratio of elders in their household.

The Deadly Cost of Informal Lending: An Economic Model of Agrarian Suicide in Punjab

The Indian state of Punjab, which initially benefited greatly from the green revolution, has suffered from a dramatic rise in agrarian suicides for several decades. We use a carefully constructed sample of over 1,000 farmers in the epicentre, and build a three-stage model of agricultural production decisions across multiple input and multiple output choices, indebtedness from multiple sources and suicide via an IPWRA (inverse probability weighted regression adjustment) treatment model to trace the potential roots of the situation. Results show that the use of informal credit from commission agents by farmers accounts for 10 percentage points (or 20%) of all suicides in our sample, regardless of other household factors and choices.