Invasive Crop Pest Research Articles

Better preparedness for invasive crop pests in changing climate: Assessing the risk of western corn rootworm (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) colonization in global maize growing regions and future spread dynamics

AbstractThe establishment and spread of alien species in new areas pose a potential threat to global food security. Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte is an invasive maize pest originally from Mexico, causing substantial economic damage to maize production across extensive areas of the United States and Europe. However, it has not yet invaded Asia or other regions. We used the Ensemble Model and Cellular Automaton to analyze the establishment and spread risk of this pest. The pest has not explored novel climates during past invasions, and the climatic ecological niche it occupied in Europe constitutes only a fraction of that in North America, indicating that the species still possesses the potential to spread further in Europe in the future. Currently, approximately 34% of global maize‐growing areas are at risk, with 25.5% facing a high establishment risk. By 2060, a significant northward spread is projected to occur in North America and Europe, while only a sporadic spread is expected in South America, Asia, Africa, or Oceania. Therefore, the adaptation of transnational management strategies may be necessary to prevent and control the risk of introduction and spread of this important maize pest into new areas of global maize production.

Radioactivity and GMO-Free Sterile Insect Technology for the Sustainable Control of the Invasive Pest Drosophila suzukii.

Drosophila suzukii (D. suzukii), commonly known as the spotted wing drosophila, is a highly invasive crop pest that is difficult to control using chemical insecticides. To address the urgent need for alternative and more sustainable control strategies, the sterile insect technique (SIT) is improved, which involves the release of sterilized male insects to mate with fertile conspecifics, thereby reducing the size of the pest population in the subsequent generation. The three critical aspects that influence the success of SIT programs in D. suzukii are addressed. First, an accurate and nondestructive method is established to determine the sex of individual insects based on the differential weight of male and female pupae. Second, conditions for X-ray sterilization are systematically tested and an optimal dose (90kV/40Gy) is identified that ensures the efficient production of sterile D. suzukii for release. Finally, the inherent thermosensitivity of D. suzukii males is exploited to develop a temperature-based sterilization technique, offering an alternative or additional SIT method for this pest. These advances will contribute to the development of a comprehensive and effective strategy for the management of D. suzukii populations, reducing their impact on agriculture and helping to safeguard crop yields.

Early warning and management of invasive crop pests under global warming: estimating the global geographical distribution patterns and ecological niche overlap of three Diabrotica beetles.

Invasive alien pests (IAPs) pose a major threat to global agriculture and food production. When multiple IAPs coexist in the same habitat and use the same resources, the economic loss to local agricultural production increases. Many species of the Diabrotica genus, such as Diabrotica barberi, Diabrotica undecimpunctata, and Diabrotica virgifera, originating from the USA and Mexico, seriously damaged maize production in North America and Europe. However, the potential geographic distributions (PGDs) and degree of ecological niche overlap among the three Diabrotica beetles remain unclear; thus, the potential coexistence zone is unknown. Based on environmental and species occurrence data, we used an ensemble model (EM) to predict the PGDs and overlapping PGD of the three Diabrotica beetles. The n-dimensional hypervolumes concept was used to explore the degree of niche overlap among the three species. The EM showed better reliability than the individual models. According to the EM results, the PGDs and overlapping PGD of the three Diabrotica beetles were mainly distributed in North America, Europe, and Asia. Under the current scenario, D. virgifera has the largest PGD ranges (1615 × 104 km2). In the future, the PGD of this species will expand further and reach a maximum under the SSP5-8.5 scenario in the 2050s (2499 × 104 km2). Diabrotica virgifera showed the highest potential for invasion under the current and future global warming scenarios. Among the three studied species, the degree of ecological niche overlap was the highest for D. undecimpunctata and D. virgifera, with the highest similarity in the PGD patterns and maximum coexistence range. Under global warming, the PGDs of the three Diabrotica beetles are expected to expand to high latitudes. Identifying the PGDs of the three Diabrotica beetles provides an important reference for quarantine authorities in countries at risk of invasion worldwide to develop specific preventive measures against pests.

Heterosis effect for larval performance of fall armyworm interstrain hybrids.

Spodoptera frugiperda, also known as fall armyworm (FAW), is an invasive crop pest that can feed on a variety of host plants, posing a serious threat to food security. There are two sympatric strains of FAW that are morphologically identical but described with different food preferences: the "rice strain" (SfR) and the "corn strain" (SfC). A few genetic loci exist to identify these two strains. Mitochondrial and Z-chromosome-linked haplotypes are the most used, but the biggest part of the genome displays little polymorphism between strains that could explain their adaptation to different plants. We have previously observed consistent transcription differences between the strains in both laboratory and natural populations. Therefore, we wonder if there are effects from host-strain-associated loci, maternally or paternally inherited, on FAW performance that could explain the divergence between the two FAW strains. To test this hypothesis, we first produced two F1 hybrid generations (SfR ♀ × SfC ♂, SfC ♀ × SfR ♂). These reciprocal hybrids should be heterozygous for all chromosomes except for the maternally inherited mitochondrial and sexual W chromosomes. To evaluate whether plant preference is determined by these genetic loci, we cultivated the two hybrids and the two parental strains in triplicate on an artificial diet and recorded several phenotypic traits such as weight over time, survival rate, emerging rate, developmental time, and sex ratio. Then, the same performance experiment was carried out on corn plants. Surprisingly, on the artificial diet, the two hybrid genotypes were both more performant than the two parental strains in terms of survival rate, pupal emerging rate, and developmental time, whereas they were intermediate to the inbred parental strains in pupal weight. On the corn plant diet, both hybrid genotypes outperformed the two parental strains in larval weight. Although these asymmetrical results revealed that mitochondrial or sex-linked haplotypes alone cannot explain the performance differences, they suggested a heterosis effect in FAW. A reduction of the female number for the CR genotype and the decreased F1 offspring reproduction in both hybrids suggested the possibility of Haldane's rule, which might be explained by the dominance model.

A GENDER PERSPECTIVE IN MITIGATING FALL ARMYWORM (Spodoptera frugiperda) TOWARDS ENVIRONMENTAL AND FOOD PRODUCTION RESILIENCE IN BOMET COUNTY, KENYA

The emergence and rapid spread of the fall armyworm (FAW) Spodoptera frugiperda in Africa having spread from its Native American since 2016 seriously threatens the food crop production of millions of smallholder farmers. In December 2016, the Kenyan government started experiencing the invasion of FAW threatening the food crop production in the country. Smallholder farmers have different household setups with gender differentials towards managements of any new invasive crop pests including FAW. From literature reviews, fall armyworm invasion can affect food production to zero production if not properly managed but there are gaps on effects of fall armyworm within different headed households by gender prompting the study on effects of fall armyworm invasion on food production between differentiated headed households in Bomet County, Kenya. Data was collected using multiple approaches including interviews on households and key informants, focus group discussions and observations. A household baseline survey and focus group discussions were done using a structured questionnaire and checklist where a total of 384 respondents were enumerated. The study result showed that the management of fall armyworm are gender specific with different gender roles and activities being used. Therefore, gender specific programs and different headed households should be approached differently during agricultural production using an effective network of extension and advisory which provides technical advice on management of new invasive pests towards food production and environmental resilience

Overexpression of the UDP-glycosyltransferase UGT34A23 confers resistance to the diamide insecticide chlorantraniliprole in the tomato leafminer, Tuta absoluta

The tomato leafminer, Tuta absoluta, is an invasive crop pest that has evolved resistance to many of the insecticides used for its control. To facilitate the investigation of the underpinning mechanisms of resistance in this species we generated a contiguous genome assembly using long-read sequencing data. We leveraged this genomic resource to investigate the genetic basis of resistance to the diamide insecticide chlorantraniliprole in Spanish strains of T. absoluta that exhibit high levels of resistance to this insecticide. Transcriptomic analyses revealed that, in these strains, resistance is not associated with previously reported target-site mutations in the diamide target-site, the ryanodine receptor, but rather is associated with the marked overexpression (20- to >100-fold) of a gene encoding a UDP-glycosyltransferase (UGT). Functional expression of this UGT, UGT34A23, via ectopic expression in Drosophila melanogaster demonstrated that it confers strong and significant resistance in vivo. The genomic resources generated in this study provide a powerful resource for further research on T. absoluta. Our findings on the mechanisms underpinning resistance to chlorantraniliprole will inform the development of sustainable management strategies for this important pest.

Adaptive evolution to the natural and anthropogenic environment in a global invasive crop pest, the cotton bollworm

The cotton bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera, is set to become the most economically devastating crop pest in the world, threatening food security and biosafety as its range expands across the globe. Key to understanding the eco-evolutionary dynamics of H.armigera, and thus its management, is an understanding of population connectivity and the adaptations that allow the pest to establish in unique environments. We assembled a chromosome-scale reference genome and re-sequenced 503 individuals spanning the species range to delineate global patterns of connectivity, uncovering a previously cryptic population structure. Using a genome-wide association study (GWAS) and cell line expression of major effect loci, we show that adaptive changes in a temperature- and light-sensitive developmental pathway enable facultative diapause and that adaptation of trehalose synthesis and transport underlies cold tolerance in extreme environments. Incorporating extensive pesticide resistance monitoring, we also characterize a suite of novel pesticide and Bt resistance alleles under selection in East China. These findings offer avenues for more effective management strategies and provide insight into how insects adapt to variable climatic conditions and newly colonized environments.

Exploring a mobile application for pest and disease symptomatic diagnosis in food crops in Nigeria: Implications of its use by smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa

Crop pests and diseases are major impediments to food security in sub-Saharan Africa. Timely and accurate diagnosis of invasive crop pests and diseases promote crop protection efforts. The use of digital mobile application technology and image processing tools for precision agriculture and pest identification and monitoring is gaining attention but limited research has tested its accuracy, especially in sub-Saharan Africa. In this study, the accuracy of Plantix - your crop doctor (a general-purpose mobile application for plant pests and diseases diagnosis) was evaluated on common pests and diseases of some staple crops grown in South-Western Nigeria. The results showed 90-100% accuracy of major pest and disease symptoms detected on maize (Zea mays), okra (Abelmoschus esculenthus), cassava (Manihot esculenta), and plantain (Musa paradisiaca), and the application showed 100% accuracy when used to diagnose similar crop types, but that are healthy. However, pest symptoms on Celosia (Celosia argentea), Amaranth (Amaranthus sp.), and Roselle (Hibiscus sabdarifa) were not detected by the mobile application, probably because these crops were not yet included in the database of this application. The exploration of this mobile application can provide technical services for farmers. There is a need to update the database of Plantix with local and indigenous crops in sub-Saharan Africa and develop home-grown mobile applications for disease and pest diagnosis and monitoring.

Estimating the Global Geographical Distribution Patterns of the Invasive Crop Pest Diuraphis noxia Kurdjumov under Current and Future Climatic Scenarios

Invasive crop pests (ICPs) are a major cause of crop losses and adversely affect global food security. Diuraphis noxia Kurdjumov is a significant ICP that feeds on the sap of crops, reducing crop yield and quality. Although estimating the geographical distribution patterns of D. noxia under climate change is critical for its management and global food security, such information remains unclear. Based on 533 global occurrence records and 9 bioclimatic variables, an optimized MaxEnt model was used to predict the potential global geographical distribution of D. noxia. The results showed that Bio1, Bio2, Bio7, and Bio12 were significant bioclimatic variables that influenced the potential geographical distribution of D. noxia. Under current climatic conditions, D. noxia was mainly distributed in west-central Asia, most of Europe, central North America, southern South America, southern and northern Africa, and southern Oceania. Under the SSP 1-2.6, SSP 2-4.5, and SSP 5-8.5 scenarios for the 2030s and 2050s, the potential suitable areas increased, and the centroid migrated to higher latitudes. The early warning of D. noxia in northwestern Asia, western Europe, and North America should be attended to further. Our results provide a theoretical basis for early monitoring and warning of D. noxia worldwide.

Metabolomics Provides New Insights into Host Manipulation Strategies by Asobara japonica (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), a Fruit Fly Parasitoid

Asobara japonica (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) is an endoparasitoid wasp that can successfully parasitize a wide range of host species across the Drosophila genus, including the invasive crop pest Drosophila suzukii. Parasitoids are capable of regulating the host metabolism to produce the nutritional metabolites for the survival of their offspring. Here, we intend to investigate the metabolic changes in D. melanogaster hosts after parasitization by A. japonica, using the non-targeted LC-MS (liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry) metabolomics analysis. In total, 3043 metabolites were identified, most of which were not affected by A. japonica parasitization. About 205 metabolites were significantly affected in parasitized hosts in comparison to non-parasitized hosts. The changed metabolites were divided into 10 distinct biochemical groups. Among them, most of the lipid metabolic substances were significantly decreased in parasitized hosts. On the contrary, most of metabolites associated with the metabolism of amino acids and sugars showed a higher abundance of parasitized hosts, and were enriched for a wide range of pathways. In addition, eight neuromodulatory-related substances were upregulated in hosts post A. japonica parasitization. Our results reveal that the metabolites are greatly changed in parasitized hosts, which might help uncover the underlying mechanisms of host manipulation that will advance our understanding of host-parasitoid coevolution.

Inorganic phosphate content does not affect oviposition preference in the invasive pest Drosophila suzukii

AbstractThe broad variation in host use among polyphagous insects is well documented but still poorly understood. In numerous pest insects, the proximate mechanisms responsible for variation in oviposition preference among host plants remain to be elucidated. The invasive crop pest, Drosophila suzukii, attacks a wide range of host fruits. Females prefer ovipositing on particular fruit media (blackberry, cherry, blackcurrant) that are rich in phosphorus. As phosphorus is known to be involved in female reproduction in insect species such as Drosophila, it could drive oviposition preference in D. suzukii. Phosphorus is either present as inorganic or organic phosphate in fruits. As the absolute content in macromolecules associated with phosphate in fruits (i.e. proteins and carbohydrates) do not affect oviposition in D. suzukii, we tested for the effect of inorganic phosphate on oviposition preference. We measured the egg‐laying preferences of D. suzukii in a choice environment containing 12 artificial media with increasing content in inorganic phosphate (monopotassium dihydrogen phosphate). In our assay, D. suzukii females did not prefer ovipositing in media with high inorganic phosphate content compared to media with lower inorganic phosphate content. As a confirmation, we verified the previous result of a higher female preference for media made of phosphorus‐rich fruits (blackberry, cherry, blackcurrant). The higher preference for phosphorus‐rich fruits could be driven by macromolecules containing phosphorus (e.g. phospholipids) or by the presence of one or more molecules that do not contain phosphorus, but that happen to be correlated to fruit phosphorus content. Studying the proximate mechanisms driving host use will ultimately help improve the management of D. suzukii and other crop pests.

Precision Guided Sterile Males Suppress Populations of an Invasive Crop Pest

The Drosophila suzukii invasion of western countries has created an immense agricultural and economic threat to crop production. Despite many attempts to suppress its population, D. suzukii continues to destroy soft-flesh fruits. Precision guided sterile insect technique (pgSIT) utilizes the accuracy of programmable CRISPR gene targeting to generate sterilized males that can be deployed to suppress populations. Here, we generate pgSIT in D. suzukii and empirically and mathematically demonstrate that sterilized males are fit, competitive, and can eliminate populations of D. suzukii. Altogether, we describe an efficient way to generate sterile D. suzukii for release and safe effective population suppression.

The distribution of covert microbial natural enemies of a globally invasive crop pest, fall armyworm, in Africa: Enemy release and spillover events.

Invasive species pose a significant threat to biodiversity and agriculture world‐wide. Natural enemies play an important part in controlling pest populations, yet we understand very little about the presence and prevalence of natural enemies during the early invasion stages.Microbial natural enemies of fall armyworm Spodoptera frugiperda are known in its native region, however, they have not yet been identified in Africa where fall armyworm has been an invasive crop pest since 2016. Larval samples were screened from Malawi, Rwanda, Kenya, Zambia, Sudan and Ghana for the presence of four different microbial natural enemies; two nucleopolyhedroviruses, Spodoptera frugiperda NPV (SfMNPV) and Spodoptera exempta NPV (SpexNPV); the fungal pathogen Metarhizium rileyi; and the bacterium Wolbachia. This study aimed to identify which microbial pathogens are present in invasive fall armyworm, and determine the geographical, meteorological and temporal variables that influence prevalence.Within 3 years of arrival, fall armyworm was exposed to all four microbial natural enemies. SfMNPV probably arrived with fall armyworm from the Americas, but this is the first putative evidence of host spillover from Spodoptera exempta (African armyworm) to fall armyworm for the endemic pathogen SpexNPV and for Wolbachia. It is also the first confirmed incidence of M. rileyi infecting fall armyworm in Africa.Natural enemies were localised, with variation being observed both nationally and temporally. The prevalence of SfMNPV (the most common natural enemy) was predominantly explained by variables associated with the weather; declining with increasing rainfall and increasing with temperature. However, virus prevalence also increased as the growing season progressed.The infection of an invasive species with a natural enemy from its native range and novel pathogens specific to its new range has important consequences for understanding the population ecology of invasive species and insect–pathogen interactions. Additionally, while it is widely known that temporal and geographic factors affect insect populations, this study reveals that these are important in understanding the distribution of microbial natural enemies associated with invasive pests during the early stages of invasion, and provide baseline data for future studies.

Transcriptome analysis of sex-biased gene expression in the spotted-wing Drosophila, Drosophila suzukii (Matsumura).

Sexual dimorphism occurs widely throughout insects and has profound influences on evolutionary path. Sex-biased genes are considered to account for most of phenotypic differences between sexes. In order to explore the sex-biased genes potentially associated with sexual dimorphism and sexual development in Drosophila suzukii, a major devastating and invasive crop pest, we conducted whole-organism transcriptome profiling and sex-biased gene expression analysis on adults of both sexes. We identified transcripts of genes involved in several sex-specific physiological and functional processes, including transcripts involved in sex determination, reproduction, olfaction, and innate immune signals. A total of 11,360 differentially expressed genes were identified in the comparison, and 1,957 differentially expressed genes were female-biased and 4,231 differentially expressed genes were male-biased. The pathway predominantly enriched for differentially expressed genes was related to spliceosome, which might reflect the differences in the alternative splicing mechanism between males and females. Twenty-two sex determination and 16 sex-related reproduction genes were identified, and expression pattern analysis revealed that the majority of genes were differentially expressed between sexes. Additionally, the differences in sex-specific olfactory and immune processes were analyzed and the sex-biased expression of these genes may play important roles in pheromone and odor detection, and immune response. As a valuable dataset, our sex-specific transcriptomic data can significantly contribute to the fundamental elucidation of the molecular mechanisms of sexual dimorphism in fruit flies, and may provide candidate genes potentially useful for the development of genetic sexing strains, an important tool for sterile insect technique applications against this economically important species.

The effect of climate change on invasive crop pests across biomes.

Climate change has various and complex effects on crop pests worldwide. In this review, we detail the role of the main climatic parameters related to temperature and precipitation changes that might have direct or indirect impacts on pest species. Changes in these parameters are likely to favour or to limit pest species, depending on their ecological context. On a global scale, crop pests are expected to benefit from current and future climate change. However, substantial differences appear across biomes and species. Temperate regions are generally more likely to face an increase in pest attacks compared with tropical regions. Therefore, climate change effects should be studied in the context of local climate and local ecological interactions across biomes.

Geographic dispersion of invasive crop pests: the role of basal, plastic climate stress tolerance and other complementary traits in the tropics.

Global pest invasions have significantly increased in recent years. These invasions together with climate warming directly impact agriculture. Tropical climates feature extreme weather events, including high temperatures and seasonal droughts. Thus, successful invasive pests in tropics have to adapt to these extreme climate features. The intrinsic factors relevant to tropical invasion of insects have been explored in many studies, but the knowledge is rather dispersed in contemporary literature. Here, we reviewed the potential biophysical characters of successful invasive pests' adaption to tropical environments including [1] inherent high basal stress tolerance and advanced life-history performances [2], phenotypic plasticity [3], rapid evolution to environmental stress, polyphagy, diverse reproductive strategies and high fecundity. We summarised how these traits and their interactive effects enhance pest invasions in the tropics. Comprehensive understanding of how these characters facilitate invasion improves models for predicting ecological consequences of climate change on invasive pest species for improved pest management.

Potential distribution of invasive crop pests under climate change: incorporating mitigation responses of insects into prediction models.

Climate change facilitates biological invasions globally. Predicting potential distribution shifts of invasive crop pests under climate change is essential for global food security in the context of ongoing world population increase. However, existing predictions often omit the capacity of crop pests to mitigate the impacts of climate change by using microclimates, as well as through thermoregulation, life history variation and evolutionary responses. Microclimates provide refugia buffering climate extremes. Thermoregulation and life history variation can reduce the effects of diurnal and seasonal temperature variability. Evolutionary responses allow insects to adapt to long-term climate change. Neglecting these ecological processes may lead to overestimations in the negative impacts of climate change on invasive pests whereas in turn cause underestimations in their range expansions. To improve model predictions, we need to incorporate the fine-scale microclimates experienced by invasive crop pests and the mitigation responses of insects to climate change into species distribution models.

In the tripartite combination\xa0Botrytis cinerea\u2013Arabidopsis\u2013Eurydema oleracea, the fungal pathogen alters the plant\u2013insect interaction via jasmonic acid signalling activation and inducible plant-emitted volatiles

In ecosystems, plants are continuously challenged by combined stress conditions more than by a single biotic or abiotic factor. Consequently, in recent years studies on plant relationships with multiple stresses have aroused increasing interest. Here, the impact of inoculation with fungal pathogens with different lifestyles on Arabidopsis plants response to the following infestation with the invasive crop pest Eurydema oleracea was investigated. In particular, as fungal pathogens the necrotroph Botrytis cinerea and the biotroph Golovinomyces orontii were used. Plants exposed to B. cinerea, but not to G. orontii, showed reduced herbivore feeding damage. This difference was associated to different hormonal pathways triggered by the pathogens: G. orontii only induced the salicylate-mediated pathway, while B. cinerea stimulated also the jasmonate-dependent signalling, which persisted for a long time providing a long-term defence to further herbivore attack. In particular, the lower susceptibility of B. cinerea-infected Arabidopsis plants to E. oleracea was related to the stimulation of the JA-induced pathway on the production of plant volatile compounds, since treatment with VOCs emitted by B. cinerea inoculated plants inhibited both insect plant choice and feeding damage. These results indicate that necrotrophic plant pathogenic fungi modulate host volatile emission, thus affecting plant response to subsequent insect, thereby increasing the knowledge on tripartite plant–microbe–insect interactions in nature.

Fall armyworm invasion heightens pesticide expenditure among Chinese smallholder farmers

Invasive species are a prominent feature of global change. Aside from their direct impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning, invasive crop pests routinely trigger environmentally-disruptive actions e.g., unguided applications of synthetic pesticides. Since 2016, the polyphagous fall armyworm (FAW, Spodoptera frugiperda J.E. Smith) has rapidly spread across Africa and Asia, impacting millions of hectares of agricultural crops. Upon its invasion of Yunnan (China) in late 2018, S. frugiperda attained outbreak population levels and inflicted important feeding damage in smallholder-managed maize crops. In this study, we show how local maize growers rely primarily on pesticides for FAW management and employ these products at 3-fold higher application frequencies as compared to 2018. Local reliance upon high-risk compounds (i.e., pyrethroids, organophosphates) decreased over time, with a respective 100% and 62% farmers using these compounds in 2018 versus 27% and 5% in 2020. Conversely, 71% and 95% farmers used new, selective compounds such as emamectin benzoate and chlorfenapyr by 2020. The full cost of pesticide-based crop protection increased from US $81 per hectare and season in 2018 to $276 in 2020. In farmer-managed fields, FAW infestation levels averaged 8.3 larvae per 100 plants and thus remained below economic injury levels (EILs) as established in other countries. Farmers' use of two or more pesticide sprays per season likely was not economically justified. Our work demonstrates how the FAW invasion has altered pest management regimes in Yunnan's maize crop, deepening farmers' pesticide dependency, and potentially exacerbating its burden on household budgets. Sustainable pest management schemes urgently need to be devised for smallholder maize systems in China and across the FAW invaded range.

Molecular characterization of N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor from Bemisia tabaci.

The N-methyl-d-aspartate receptors (NMDARs) are ionotropic ligand gated channels that are highly permeable to calcium ions. In insects, NMDARs are associated with glutamatergic neurotransmission governing diverse physiological and biological processes like vitellogenesis and ovarian development. Therefore, NMDAR may act as attractive target for insect pest control. In present study, we performed structural and functional characterization of NMDARs in Bemisia tabaci, a highly invasive crop pest and potent virus vector. We identified that NMDAR consists of three subunits each encoded by single gene in whiteflies which are highly conserved among different insect orders. Expression analysis suggests that subunit 1 (BtNR1) and subunit 2 (BtNR2) are the main functional units. External supplementation of NMDAR ligand or BtNRs silencing was lethal to insects, which suggested that NMDAR function is highly balanced in whiteflies.