Inuit Culture Research Articles

Mad dogs and (mostly) Englishmen: Colonial relations, commodities, and the fate of Inuit sled dogs

The Qikiqtani Truth Commission was created by the Qikiqtani Inuit Association to examine events affecting Qikiqtanimiut between 1950 and 1980. Paramount among these was the fate of Inuit sled dogs. Dogs, unlike the snowmobiles that have replaced them, had no exchange value in a market economy. They enabled existential relations dependent upon traditional and personal skills rooted in Inuit culture and personality. It is understandable that their fate was identified by elders as an important focus of the Commission. The loss of dogs was both real and symbolic of cultural transformations that concern Inuit elders. As Inuit relocated to settlements, sled dogs became a liability for the Arctic administration. TheDog Ordinance of the Northwest Territories, intended to protect people from attacks, was at the same time a tool in the totalising agenda of a Canadian State committed to assimilating Inuit to Canadian norms, values, assumptions, rule of law, and settlement living. As Inuit moved to town in the 1950s and 1960s, theDog Ordinance of the Northwest Territorieswas used to redefine dogs—previously seen as essential to Inuit lifestyles, to keeping Inuit out of town, away from welfare and living independently—as liabilities and commodities. Their replacement by snowmobiles introduced Inuit to new commodity relations. As a commodity essential to hunting, snowmobiles pose a serious challenge to Inuit reciprocity andningiqtuq(sharing) relations andInuitQaujimajatuqangit(traditional knowledge).

Placing Identity: Town, Land, and Authenticity in Nunavut, Canada

Recent demographic changes have made settlement patterns in the Canadian Arctic increasingly urban. Iqaluit, capital of Canada's newest territory, Nunavut, is home to the largest concentration of Inuit and non-Inuit populations in the Canadian North. Despite these trends, Inuit cultural identity continues to rest heavily on the perception that to learn how to be authentically Inuit (or to be a better person), a person needs to spend time out on the land (and sea) hunting, fishing, trapping, and camping. Many Inuit also maintain a rather negative view of urban spaces in the Arctic, identifying them as places where Inuit values and practices have been eclipsed by Qallunaat (“white people”) ones. Some Inuit have even gone so far as to claim that a person is no longer able to be Inuit while living in towns like Iqaluit. This article examines those aspects of Canadian Inuit identity, culture, and tradition that disfavor the acceptance of an urban cultural identity. Based on ethnographic research conducted on Baffin Island in the mid 1990s and early 2000s, the many ways Iqaluit and outpost camp Inuit express the differences and similarities between living on the land and living in town are described. Then follows an examination of how the contrast of land and town is used in the rhetoric of Inuit politicians and leaders. Finally, a series of counterexamples are presented that favor the creation of an authentic urban Inuit identity in the Arctic, including recent attempts on the part of the Nunavut Territorial Government to make education and wage employment in the region more reliant on Inuit Qaujimajatuqangit, or Inuit traditional knowledge.1

Eurocentric roadblocks to school change in Nunavut

Sixty years after its inception, schooling in the eastern Arctic remains predominantly based on Euro-Canadian values, curricula and pedagogy, and privileging English over Inuit languages. Many studies have linked this model of schooling to poor academic achievement and assault on Inuit culture, and many Inuit have for decades indicated that they want schooling to reflect Inuit culture. In this article I argue that Eurocentrism continues to slow the pace of educational change in Nunavut, despite the supportive proclamations and good intentions of White teachers and bureaucrats. Based on fieldwork in one Nunavut community and on observations as a teacher and visitor in Arctic areas, I present examples of individual Eurocentrism, Eurocentrism embedded in the educational system, and pan-Canadian Eurocentrism that create roadblocks to school change in Nunavut. I also suggest some ways to challenge the roadblocks. As Inuit continue to press for schools based on Inuit priorities Euro-Canadians should act as allies. To this end, Euro-Canadians need to acknowledge and challenge Eurocentrism.

Culturally relevant schooling in Nunavut: Views of secondary school educators

The Nunavut Department of Education is committed to creating culturally relevant Nunavut secondary schools using, as a foundation, the principles of Inuit Qaujimajatuqangit (Inuit traditional knowledge and learning), bilingualism, and inclusive schooling. This paper focuses on the voices of Nunavut secondary school educators by building upon the results of the Sivuniksamut Ilinniarniq research project, which explored multiple graduation options for Nunavut youth and was conducted by the Nunavut Department of Education in 2004. Some of the data for this research project came from a survey of secondary school educators. The open-ended responses revealed three main themes: the role of Inuit language and culture in Nunavut education; an increased role for family and community; and concerns about student engagement. An overview of the initial survey results as well as further qualitative analysis and discussion of the three main themes is provided. For current educational planning, it is necessary to understand how the majority non-Inuit secondary school educators view the Nunavut school system and the possible assumptions embedded within these views.

Caribou to Cod: Moravian Missionary Influence on Inuit Subsistence Strategies

German Moravian missionaries arrived in Labrador, Canada at the end of the 18th century. They intended to introduce Christianity to Inuit peoples without disrupting important aspects of traditional Inuit culture, such as hunting practices. Over time the Moravians began introducing more than just religion: European raw materials, manufactured products, and foods. As a result, Inuit were incorporated into a market economy in which the export of local goods produced by Inuit labor such as seal oil, dried fish, ivory, and fur were exchanged for iron tools, guns, cloth, and ceramics. Simultaneously, becoming part of a larger global economy meant changing aspects of the local subsistence economy. Inuit subsistence strategies were incorporated into a Moravian economic strategy, and ecological relationships changed as a result of colonial influences. Integration into a market economy also altered the spiritual intersection between Inuit and animals.

Qupirruit: Insects and Worms in Inuit Traditions

Although small beings such as the "qupirruit" (insects and worms) appear in many different contexts in Inuit culture, they have not received much attention from scholars. In this paper we examine the symbolism associated with these small animals. We show that their small size makes them suitable to operate on the level of the "tarniq," a miniature image of a being. We discuss how insects often connect different scales and easily transform into other beings. We first deal with the perceptions of insects as they take shape in narratives and practices, and their roles in the manufacture and use of amulets. Then we move to a more specific analysis of the distinctive features of the various "qupirruit".

The Qijurittuq site (IbGk-3), Eastern Hudson Bay: An IPY Interdisciplinary Study

Geografisk Tidsskrift—Danish Journal of Geography 110(2):227–243, 2010 An interdisciplinary study was conducted at Qijurittuq (IbGk-3), an archaeological site located on Drayton Island along the eastern shore of Hudson Bay, Nunavik. Local Inuit made important contributions to the research. High school students participated in the field school, and elders shared their traditional knowledge. The elders expressed an interest in the source of the wood used to construct Qijurittuq's semi-subterranean dwellings, and this inspired us to expand our research in that direction. This interdisciplinary study included a reconstruction of the geomorphological and environmental history of Drayton Island, wood provenance and dendrochronology studies, research on house architecture and settlement patterns, and a zooarchaeological analysis. This paper synthesizes the preliminary results of this interdisciplinary investigation within the context of climate change. We discuss the persistence of semi-subterranean dwellings in eastern Hudson Bay long after they had been abandoned elsewhere. At Qijurittuq, their abandonment corresponds with the end of Little Ice Age. However, at the same time, the development of more permanent contact with Euro-Canadians was having a strong impact upon Inuit culture.

The Northeast Greenland Sirius Water Polynya dynamics and variability inferred from satellite imagery

Geografisk Tidsskrift—Danish Journal of Geography 110(2):131–142, 2010 One of the most prominent polynyas in Northeast Greenland, already noted by the early expeditions in the area, is located around Shannon Ø and Pendulum Øer between 75° and 74°N in the transition zone between the fast ice and pack ice. This study names the polynya the ‘Sirius Water Polynya’, and examines its spatial and temporal dynamics by analysis of recent satellite imagery, modelled meteorological data and historical data covering the last decade. The dominating mechanisms to form and sustain the polynya are inferred and the persistence and inter-annual variability of the phenomenon are estimated. The polynya formation is predominantly governed by mechanical forcing caused by northerly gales, and it is classified as a wind-driven shelf water polynya. A marked seasonal difference in the surface wind field, together with the obvious seasonal cycle in insolation, creates distinct winter and summer regimes in the seasonal evolution of the polynya. During the winter regime, both the size of and the ice cover within the polynya varies significantly on a temporal and spatial scale. Intermittent wind-driven openings of the polynya alternate with periods of increasing ice cover. Some of the most persistent areas of open water in the polynya coincide with locations where significant concentrations of spring and summer settlements from the Thule Inuit culture (AD 1400–1850) are observed, indicating a connection between the presence of the polynya and the Thule Inuit living in the area in prehistoric times.

Coastal environments around Thule settlements in Northeast Greenland

Geografisk Tidsskrift—Danish Journal of Geography 110(2):143–154, 2010 Inuit have travelled to and settled in the coastal landscapes of Northeast Greenland for several longer periods during the latest ca. 4500 years. Most recently the Thule culture Inuit lived in the region from around 1400 until 1850 AD. The access to partly and periodically ice covered near coastal waters has been crucial to the primarily marine based subsistence strategy of the Thule Inuit culture, and their settlements are therefore found immediately at the coast. Changing geological and geomorphologic settings strongly influence the coastal morphodynamics, and only specific locations offer stable and protected conditions needed for proper winter settlements. The comprehensive study of coastal environments and Thule culture winter settlements in the Young Sound region show an accumulation of winter settlements, nearly all located either in protected pocket beaches or on stable basalt capes. The Thule culture abandoned Northeast Greenland about 1850 AD, and apart from settlements on basalt capes, most of the winter settlement sites in pocket beach areas have been affected by erosion of local character and in some cases also affected by increasing wave erosion during recent periods of less ice in near coastal waters.

Methodological consideration of story telling in qualitative research involving Indigenous Peoples

The use of storytelling in qualitative research involving Inuit compliments the oral tradition of Inuit culture. The objective of the research was to explore the use of qualitative methods to gain understanding of the experience of living with diabetes, with the ultimate goal of better formulating health care delivery and health promotion among Inuit. In-depth interviews were analyzed and interpreted using thematic analysis, open coding, and structured narrative analysis. Inuit community members acted as partners through all stages of the research. ''Because the more we understand, the more we're gonna do a prevention on it ... What I want is use my, use my diabetes, what I have ... so that it can be used by other people for prevention because they'll have understanding about it'' - an Inuk storyteller speaks to the value of education in health promotion. Key methodological issues found relevant to improving qualitative research with Indigenous Peoples include: (i) participatory research methods, grounded in principals of equity, through all phases of research; (ii) the presentation of narratives rather than only interpretations of narratives; (iii) understanding of culture, language, and place to frame the interpretation of the stories in the context within which storytellers experience living with their diabetes, and (iv) the value of multiple methods of analyses. This article comments on the challenges of conducting rigorous research in a cross-cultural setting and outlines methodologies that can improve qualitative narrative analyses research. The research highlighted experiences of living with diabetes and the ways in which storytellers coped and negotiated social support.

The collaboration of James Mutch and Franz Boas, 1883-1922

James Mutch, whaler and manager of the Scottish whaling station at Kekerten in Cumberland Sound, assisted Franz Boas in his field study of Inuit culture from 1883 to 1884. Subsequently, the two men carried out an extensive correspondence, lasting over thirty years. At Boas invitation, Mutch made three collections of ethnographic material for the American Museum of Natural History, which allowed Boas to publish two major works on Inuit material and intellectual culture without venturing north again. Mutch’s contribution to our knowledge of Inuit culture has never been described and has therefore gone unrecognised.

Journey to Inuuqatigiit: Curriculum Development for Nunavut Education

This article explores the experiences of 8 Inuit curriculum authors in the Nunavut Territory of Canada during the creation of Inuuqatigiit: The Curriculum From the Inuit Perspective. The Inuuqatigiit authors' story is examined in terms of the group coming together, their work with elders, the educational community's response to the Inuuqatigiit curriculum, as well as the author's intentions for its future use. The Inuuqatigiit authors' journey demonstrates a commitment to curriculum development and instructional practice that is firmly rooted in Inuit language and culture. Details of the authors' contributions to Indigenous, community-based schooling efforts are provided, as well as discussions of the wider discursive connections contained within the Inuuqatigiit authors' story.

Language, culture and community among urban Inuit in Ottawa

This paper discusses the social experiences and needs of an urban Inuit community in Ottawa, drawing on interview data gathered as part of collaborative research with the Ottawa Inuit Children’s Centre. Its aim is to trace the role of social, historical, and geographical processes in urban Inuit experiences and to assess how they must be considered in an analysis of Inuit language and culture programming needs in the city. Our findings support the notions that communities are not fixed or unified entities and that issues such as housing, language, and discrimination both unite and create barriers for Inuit in the city. Inuit-run language and culture programs are central to community-building and to increased access to employment and services in the city.

À propos de l’exposition Upside Down – Les Arctiques

L’exposition Upside Down - Les Arctiques —installée dans la galerie Jardin du musée du quai Branly (Paris, France) du 30 septembre 2008 au 11 janvier 2009— présente près de 500 artefacts de la culture inuit censés stimuler l’imaginaire du public. Sous couvert d’une promenade sensorielle dans le monde polaire, via une scénographie remarquée, se profile une attention sous-jacente: la valorisation d’une collection privée et de son auteur.

Post-colonial identity in Greenland?

In the gradual unravelling of Greenland’s colonial relationship to Denmark, an essentialist conceptualization of Greenlandic identity has played a significant role. However, both our scholarly understanding of post-colonial Greenlandic identity and the process towards independence for Greenland could be furthered by bringing politics back in. Based on a discourse analysis of the Greenlandic debate on language, this paper makes three claims: First, the identity projects promoted in Greenland are based on an essentialist conception of identity. Secondly, Greenlandic identity discourse combines elements of traditional Inuit culture and elements of colonial modernity. Thirdly, monolingual Greenlanders are those with the most to gain from abandoning the dichotomy of essentialist identities. Strategically, the paper suggests a post-post-colonial Greenlandic identity as a means of avoiding the exclusion of valuable human resources. One step towards relieving the relation to the Danish Other of identificatory weight could be a gradual shift to English as second language.

Ikajarutit: delivering legislative library services in an Inuktitut language environment

Nunavut Territory came into existence April 1, 1999. From the outset it was seen as a chance to shape institutions to preserve Inuit language, culture and tradition. No other Canadian province or territory has a majority of people speaking a single aboriginal language and it is a goal of the Government of Nunavut that by 2020 Inuktitut will be the working language of government. In this environment, the Legislative Library works to build collections, deliver services and develop staff competencies in Inuktitut language and library skills.

Inuit Cyberspace: The Struggle for Access for Inuit Qaujimajatuqangit

In the field of cyberspace studies, there has been growing interest in researching the implications of cyberspace on ethnic representations and relations, a subject of particular importance for increasingly diverse societies such as Canada. In this essay, the authors examine the relationship between Internet-based new media technologies, the preservation and promotion of Inuit knowledge, and the evolution of Canada’s national identity. The authors examine whether new media technologies can serve as a means to assert and, perhaps, advance Inuit values, linguistic and cultural legacy, knowledge systems and political philosophy. The case study of the development of the Nanisiniq Inuit Qaujimajatuqangit (IQ) Adventure Website, a community-based initiative, illustrates how new media technologies support the documentation and integration of a system of cultural resources. The fully bilingual website (Inuktitut and English) guides the learner-user through an online journey about the relationship between Inuit and the land through an exploration of diverse resources, including a searchable database of elders recounting the ancient legend of Kiviuq to filmmaker John Houston. The authors assert that amplifying Inuit voices via the Internet supports new patterns of engagement between Inuit elders and youth, and among their communities. Furthermore, the case study highlights how new media technologies can “push” Inuit culture out into the world and “pull” at the national power centre that continues to ignore Northerners’ policy needs. The case study’s focus on environmental stewardship reveals how online representations of ancient knowledge systems can inspire postcolonial patterns of engagement between humans, and between humans and the environment.

Governance in Nunavut: Capacity vs. Culture?

A key objective of Inuit political leaders in pushing for the creation of a Nunavut Territory was the establishment of a governance regime that would not only be numerically controlled by Inuit, but would also in a real sense be an Inuit government. Among other things, this would entail developing institutions and processes congruent with Inuit culture and values, and ensuring that the new regime did not “duplicate Yellowknife”—that is, simply replicate the structures, processes, and attitudes that characterized the Government of the Northwest Territories prior to division. This essay assesses the governance regime in Nunavut against these objectives. Specific attention will be devoted to the basic structure and operation of the Government of Nunavut, including its decentralization initiative and its efforts to achieve high rates of Inuit participation in the public service; the political-governmental role of Nunavut Tunngavik Incorporated, the Inuit land-claim organization; the activities of the co-management and regulatory boards established under the Nunavut Land Claims Agreement; and municipal government.

The Trail as Home: Inuit and Their Pan-Arctic Network of Routes

This paper provides ethnographic and historical evidence for the existence, in time and space, of a network of well-established trails connecting most Inuit settlements and significant places across the Canadian Arctic. The geographic and environmental knowledge relating to trails (and place names associated with the trails) has been orally transmitted through many generations of Inuit. I use historical documents, ethnographic research, and new geographic tools such as GPS, GIS and Google Earth, to show the geographic extent of the network and its historical continuity. I particularly draw on a trip following Inuit along a traditional trail connecting the communities of Iglulik and Naujaat (Repulse Bay). Inuit have made systematic use of the Arctic environment as a whole and trails are, and have been, significant channels of communication and exchange across the Arctic. There are some types of oral history and knowledge that can be accurately transmitted through generations, and I propose that some aspects of Inuit culture are better understood in terms of moving as a way of living.

Aboriginal Languages in Quebec: Fighting Linguicide with Bilingual Education

Aboriginal peoples in Quebec are fighting for the survival of their language and culture. An essential component of Aboriginal decolonization and empowerment is the protection and enhancement of the Aboriginal heritage language. In this article, we review twenty years of research in Arctic Quebec (Nunavik) involving Inuit students educated in Inuktitut as well as in French and English. Our research reveals that children not only learn better in their own heritage language as opposed to one of the societally dominant languages, but also develop a more positive view of themselves, and a healthier view of Inuit as a group. Bilingual Education is shown to be of crucial importance for the vitality of Inuit language and culture.