Intrinsic Motivation Research Articles

Age-inclusive leadership and intrinsic work motivation: the moderating role of the leader–member age difference

Age-inclusive leadership and intrinsic work motivation: the moderating role of the leader–member age difference

Simply unidirectional? A cross-lagged panel analysis of the links between perfectionism, academic motivation and engagement

Perfectionism is widely recognised as a key factor in students’ learning experiences, but such evidence is primarily derived from cross-sectional studies testing unidirectional links. To fill in the gap, our study used a longitudinal design and made the initial attempt to examine the bi-directional links between two types of perfectionism (personal standards and concerns over mistakes), two types of academic motivation (intrinsic and extrinsic motivation), and academic engagement. Results from the cross-lagged panel analysis among Chinese university students found that personal standards and intrinsic motivation were positively and reciprocally related. Another reciprocity was revealed: intrinsic motivation positively predicted later extrinsic motivation, while extrinsic motivation negatively predicted later intrinsic motivation. Besides, our study revealed several unidirectional links: intrinsic motivation positively predicted later academic engagement, extrinsic motivation positively predicted later concerns over mistakes, and academic engagement negatively predicted later concerns over mistakes.

Prosocial Behavior and Workplace Safety: Analysis of the Role of Emotional Intelligence and Perceived Organizational Support in Two UK and US Samples

Prosocial safety behavior (PSB) is a critical element of workforce participation in the promotion of safety in the workplace. This study aims to examine the influence of various antecedents on PSB. Based on an analysis of the existing literature on prosocial behaviors, we investigate whether emotional intelligence (EI) and perceived organizational support (POS) significantly influence PSB. Furthermore, we analyze the mediating role of employees’ intrinsic motivation (IM) and affective commitment (AC) in these relationships. The research was conducted by administering an online questionnaire to a large sample of 488 workers employed in safety-critical industries based in the United States and the United Kingdom with the support of an online platform (N = 346; N = 142). Statistical analyses, conducted using a multi-group approach, revealed that EI had a direct effect on PSB in the two samples analyzed. In the US sample, we found that IM mediated the influence of EI and POS on PSB. In the UK sample, none of the mediation hypotheses were supported. The study provides insights into the individual and organizational factors that promote the development of a prosocial orientation in managing workplace safety issues, revealing the importance of recognizing the role of EI as a significant person-related antecedent supporting PSB. The statistical evidence from the study suggests that organizations that desire to facilitate the expression of PSB in their workforce may consider investing in training programs to enhance the EI of their employees and designing work conditions that facilitate high levels of intrinsic motivation.

Development and validation of the mathematics self-efficacy scale for university students

Background: Academic underperformance in mathematics is widespread across all educational levels. To comprehend its causes, it is crucial to analyze various factors that impact academic advancement in mathematics through their interplay. The present study aimed to develop and validate a mathematics self-efficacy scale for university students. Methods: The research method was correlational and of instrument development type. The statistical population included all undergraduate students of Islamic Azad Universities in Tehran in 2021, of which 300 were selected as a sample using a multi-stage cluster random sampling method. In the process of scale construction, a set of items was initially selected based on a review of the research literature in the field of mathematics self-efficacy and the identification of valid tests in this area. Then, a preliminary version of the questionnaire was administered to a sample of 300 students. Factor analysis, Cronbach’s alpha coefficient, and Pearson correlation coefficient were used to analyze the data. Results: Based on the results of the exploratory factor analysis, the mathematics self-efficacy scale consisted of four components: mathematical achievement and success, general mathematical self-efficacy, mathematical anxiety, and mathematical stress. Cronbach’s alpha for the four components were 0.97, 0.95, 0.95, and 0.93, respectively. The results of the convergent validity evaluation showed that all four components of the mathematics self-efficacy scale were positively correlated with the intrinsic and extrinsic motivation components of the Academic Motivation Scale and negatively correlated with academic motivation. Conclusion: The components of the mathematics self-efficacy scale had acceptable internal consistency and convergent validity. Therefore, it can be concluded that the designed scale can be used as a valid tool to measure the level of mathematics self-efficacy in university students.

Physiotherapy in acute geriatrics wards: What (de)motivates patients? A qualitative study based on self-determination theory

BackgroundWhile the benefits of physiotherapy for hospitalized older patients (HOPs) are well established, these patients are often considered demotivated by healthcare team members (HTMs), which is perceived as a hindrance to their rehabilitation. The quantitative data currently available on the lack of involvement of HOPs are mainly measures of mobility. Motivation as such has, to our knowledge, never been measured. Therefore, this study aims to quantify for the first time the motivation levels of HOPs in their participation in activities of daily living (ADLs) and physiotherapy, and to explore the motivating factors behind their participation in physiotherapy.MethodsThe motivation of 60 older patients hospitalized in an acute geriatrics ward was quantified using the Scale of Demotivation Assessment (SDA). Out of these participants, 14 were interrogated through individual semi-structured face-to-face interviews. After transcription, data were analyzed according to Self-Determination Theory, which has been proven effective in the understanding of motivational mechanisms.ResultsThe prevalence of demotivation was 47% (95% CI: [0.34;0.6]) for ADLs and 35% (95% CI: [0.23;0.48]) for physiotherapy. The main demotivating factors were the feeling of external control (lack of autonomy) and dependance experienced by HOPs, as well as the limited availability of staff during hospitalization. Conversely, feelings of competence, security, respect for limits, and commitment from the HTMs were important motivating factors.ConclusionA large number of relational factors have an impact on the motivation of HOPs regarding their participation in ADLs and in physiotherapy sessions. Appropriate time and space organizing and the provision of suitable equipment, combined with a genuine caring and respectful attitude from the HTMs, could considerably encourage the expression of intrinsic motivation and thus the involvement of HOPs in their own care program.

Understanding the Effectiveness of Email Prompts to Online Asynchronous Course Participants

A persistent problem in asynchronous online courses is low user retention. Compared to conventional courses, participants require some form of reward or intrinsic motivation to complete these courses which do not have set deadlines or timetables. To remedy this, many online course platforms will send email reminders to participants registered in the course to prompt them to continue their participation. This study is focused on understanding the efficacy of such practices in motivating students to continue a course they would otherwise neglect or drop. This study focuses on selected courses on the online asynchronous learning platform open.uom.lk. The participants of an online asynchronous Project Management course who had enrolled but not completed the course were separated into two groups; students who enrolled but have not started the course and students who started the course but have stopped for over a month. The students of each group were divided into test and control groups, where the test group was sent prompts by email to continue the course which included a link to the course page Using user activity data from the platform the progress of students over the month prompts were sent, and the month after were analysed, and the efficacy of sending email prompts was calculated. 4.45% of the students from the test group began participating in the course again as compared to 2% of the students in the test group. 32 students (0.7%) completed the course in the weeks during and after the email prompts were sent while none of the students in the control group completed the course. This shows sending email prompts has a positive impact on increasing participation in the course.

Does subordinate moqi ignite employee creativity? The role of self-efficacy and face consciousness

Purpose Drawing on the self-concept-based theory, this study aims to consider subordinate moqi as a source of forming self-concept to develop a conceptual model to examine the relationships between subordinate moqi and employee creativity, including self-efficacy as a mediator and face consciousness as a moderator. Design/methodology/approach An online survey was conducted and 188 subordinate-supervisor paired samples were collected in China. This paper applied the multiple linear regression method to test the proposed hypotheses. Findings Results show that subordinate moqi is positively related to employee creativity, and employee self-efficacy mediates the positive relationship between subordinate moqi and employee creativity. Additionally, face consciousness moderates the positive effect of self-efficacy on employee creativity and the indirect effect of subordinate moqi on employee creativity via employee self-efficacy. Practical implications These findings suggest that employees, managers and organizations should foster subordinate moqi, especially for the managers whose subordinates have low-level creativity. Moreover, fostering subordinate moqi can enhancing employee self-efficacy and further promote employee creativity. Additionally, our findings show the moderating role of face consciousness. That is, face consciousness can be regarded as a management tool to inspire employees’ intrinsic motivation to achieve goal tasks. Especially in the Chinese context, the face culture is quite prominent. Originality/value The findings provide empirical evidence on how and when subordinate moqi promote employee creativity. This study enriches our understanding of subordinate moqi.

EXPRESS: Individual differences in distributional statistical learning: better frequency 'discriminators' are better 'estimators'.

People can easily extract and encode statistical information from their environment. However, research has primarily focused on conditional statistical learning (i.e. the ability to learn joint and conditional relationships between stimuli) and has largely neglected distributional statistical learning (i.e. the ability to learn the frequency and variability of distributions). For example, learning that 'E' is more common in the English alphabet than 'Z.' In this paper, we investigate how distributional learning can be measured by exploring the relationship between, and psychometric properties of, four different measures of distributional learning - from the ability to discriminate relative frequencies to the ability to estimate frequencies. We identified moderate relationships between four distributional learning measures and these tasks accounted for a substantial portion of the variance in performance across tasks (44.3%). A measure of divergent validity (intrinsic motivation) did not significantly correlate with any statistical learning measure and accounted for a separate portion of the variance across tasks. More complex measures also showed better reliability and internal consistency. Our results suggest that distributional statistical learning encompasses both the ability to discriminate between relative frequencies and directly estimating them.

Jordanian EFL Students' Views on the Impact of Online Learning on Their Academic Achievement and Self-Motivation

The research aims to explore Jordanian EFL students' views on the impact of online learning on their academic achievement and self-motivation. The study involved 1776 EFL participants from Al-Zaytoonah, Isra, and Middle East Universities in the academic year 2023-2024, out of which 388 were chosen randomly for sampling. Data gathering was facilitated through a validated survey, distributed both digitally via Google Forms and in printed forms. Collected responses were organized in Excel for analysis. The analysis process involved evaluating the data, focusing on participant demographics, and using frequency and percentage metrics. Both academic performance and self-motivation dimensions were evaluated through mean values, standard deviations, and the MANOVA test. The initially used 5-point Likert scale was restructured into three categories: low, moderate, and high. The results indicate a middle-range influence on the investigated domains, with academic performance taking a slight lead. Key influencing factors identified were gender and GPA. The effect of online learning on student outcomes was diverse, positively impacting collaboration, preparedness, and overall performance but showing limitations in areas like time management and assignment submission. Even though students expressed contentment in collaborative areas, the research highlighted gaps in intrinsic motivation and perceived relevance of tasks.

Exploring Parent Perspectives on Autonomy Supportive Environments: A Qualitative Recreational Therapy Approach

The purpose of this study was to explore the ways par-ents provide autonomy supportive environments to their child with type 1 diabetes. Self-determination theory (SDT) is focused on interplay between extrinsic forces acting on persons and the intrinsic motive and needs of human beings. This study adopted SDT as its theoreti-cal framework, with emphasis on autonomy supportive environments. Interview questions were formulated and prepared according to components within the SDT. Between January 2023 and March 2023, seven parents consented and participated in interviews via Zoom. In-terviews followed a pre-constructed interview protocol which included 10 questions centered on the fostering of competence, relatedness, autonomy, choice provision, ra-tional provision, perspective taking, and advocacy. While it is known that parenting children with type 1 diabetes poses many challenges, our findings support giving a child autonomy to lead to more effective diabetes management. Also, findings indi-cated the importance of involvement in social groups, such as parent groups and medi-cal specialty camps. Recreational therapist (RT) professionals can measure outcomes as well as additional insight into parent perspective through camp involvement. This further supports RT using the self-determination theory within the practice of diabetes camps to improve health. Authors provide suggestions for future studies and practice implications for parental camp involvement.

"I Can't Imagine Not Being an Athlete": A Retrospective Qualitative Analysis of the Factors that Influence Sport Passion Development in Collegiate Athletes

Athletes’ motivation, well-being, and outcomes in sport are heavily influenced by passion, which can be conceptualized as either harmonious (HP) or obsessive (OP) (Vallerand et al., 2003). Although the effects of HP and OP have been repeatedly observed, factors that cause these passion types to surface have scarcely been studied (Mageau et al., 2009). The purpose of this study was to identify the major factors impacting HP and OP in collegiate athletes and note the differences in these pathways. Data collection occurred in two distinct phases: Phase I surveyed participants’ sport passion levels, and Phase II selected athletes whose scores met certain criteria for follow-up interviews. During these interviews, the researcher explored each participant's sport journey from youth to college. Overarching categories identified from the athletes’ rendition of their sport experiences were passion identifiers (enjoyment, time and energy investment, value), athletic identity (“I am an athlete” vs. “I am not only an athlete”), fulfillment/frustration of autonomy (autonomy support vs autonomy thwarting), perception of feedback (support independent of performance outcomes vs. pressure to perform well), and motivation (extrinsic vs. intrinsic). The main differences between groups were seen in enjoyment, extrinsic motivation, exclusive athletic identity, pressure to perform well, and autonomy thwarting. Implications from the study include that parents and coaches can foster the development of HP by providing ample autonomy support, encouraging intrinsic motivation and a well-rounded identity, offering more support than pressure, and explicitly communicating that support is not attached to contingencies.

Longitudinal associations between quality of out-of-school time and adolescent social skills

Involvement in out-of-school activities, such as sports and clubs, is linked to greater intrinsic motivation and positive mood in children and adolescents, as well as opportunities for social skill development. However, the impact of out-of-school time (OST) activities varies with youths’ perceptions of their quality, and few studies have examined these effects longitudinally. While higher quality OST relates to improved social skills, children with stronger social skills tend to receive more positive responses from their environments. In this brief report, we explored whether quality OST was linked to increases in social skills from early to middle adolescence and/or whether having social skills leads to higher quality OST experiences. In a sample of 996 mother–child dyads (45% female, 78% white, 24% low-income), we used cross-lagged path modeling to examine bidirectional relations between sixth-grade OST quality and ninth-grade social skills, as well as sixth-grade social skills and ninth-grade OST quality. The cross-lagged path model accounted for child sex, family income, father in the home, closeness with mothers, teachers, and peers, and number of OST activities. The cross-lagged effects were bidirectional: sixth-grade social skills were associated with increases in OST quality ( β = .08, p = .014), and sixth-grade OST quality was related to increases in social skills ( β = .10, p < .001). These findings have important implications for parents, teachers, and coaches who manage adolescents’ extracurricular activities.

Incorporating Therapeutic Education and Exercise in Migraine Management: A Biobehavioral Approach.

The main objective was to perform a description of the potential biobehavioral factors that influence disability in patients with migraines and develop a multimodal physiotherapy treatment proposal incorporating therapeutic education and exercise prescription, applying a biobehavioral approach. This manuscript highlights the complex interplay between migraines and physical activity, with many migraine sufferers performing reduced physical activity, even during headache-free intervals. The kinesiophobia present in a significant portion of patients with migraine exacerbates functional disability and compromises quality of life. Psychological elements, especially pain catastrophizing, depression, and self-efficacy, further compound migraine-related disability. Addressing these issues requires a multidisciplinary approach that integrates physical activity and behavioral interventions. We propose a therapeutic education model of motor behavior that emphasizes the enhancement of therapeutic exercise outcomes. This model consists of the four following phases: (1) biobehavioral analysis of movement; (2) goal setting; (3) education about exercise benefits; and (4) movement education. A notable feature is the incorporation of motivational interviewing, a communication strategy that amplifies intrinsic motivation for change. Recent clinical guidelines have advocated for specific exercise modalities to ameliorate migraine symptoms. However, we highlight the importance of a tailored exercise prescription to maximize the benefits of exercise and reduce the possible adverse effects. The integration of exercise with other lifestyle recommendations, such as maintaining consistent sleep patterns and employing stress management techniques, is pivotal for improving outcomes in patients with migraine. Although evidence supports the benefits of these interventions in various painful conditions, further research is needed to establish their efficacy specifically for migraine management.

Enhancing tourism and hospitality organizations’ ESG via transformational leadership and employee pro-environmental behavior: The effect of organizational culture

Existing literature on environmental, social, and corporate governance (ESG) primarily focuses on outcomes, neglecting strategies to enhance its predictors. Drawing upon the competing values framework (CVF) and self-determination theory (SDT), this study investigates the interactive impact of transformational leadership (TFL) and two types of external-focused organizational cultures (OCs) on employee pro-environmental behaviors (PEBs) and subsequently ESG performance in the context of tourism and hospitality industry. By employing a time-lagged field investigation involving 57 Chinese hospitality organizations, this multilevel study draws several findings. First, TFL promotes PEBs among hospitality employees, which in turn contributes to enhanced ESG performance. Second, the adoption of an adhocracy culture in hospitality organizations can further enhance the positive impact of TFL on employee PEBs. Finally, this study also reveals the serial mediating roles of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, that is, psychological empowerment (PE) and perceived insider status (PIS), in the relationship between TFL and employee PEBs.

The Interactive Effect of Extrinsic Controls and Public Service Motivation on Blame Avoidance

Extrinsic and intrinsic systems of control are two prominent determinants of bureaucratic behavior. An exploration of the respective effects of the two forms of control may overlook that they often interact to exert impacts on bureaucrats. Drawing on a dataset of 870 civil servants in China, this study examines the interactive effect of extrinsic controls and intrinsic public service motivation (PSM) on blame avoidance. Three extrinsic interventions are explored: contingent rewards, punishment, and peer influence. The results show that contingent rewards may inhibit blame avoidance, and civil servants with higher PSM are more likely to be incentivized by reward contingency to contain their blame-avoiding propensity. Furthermore, extrinsic punishment may provoke bureaucrats’ intention to avoid blame, but PSM can inhibit this propensity. Finally, bureaucrats with higher PSM are more inclined to be invigorated by their peers’ industriousness, whereas those low in PSM tend to shift responsibilities to their more hard-working associates.

Communication Apprehension and Coping Strategies of the English Language Learners: Basis for Interactive Activities Enrichment

Communication apprehension is an uneasiness experienced by all individuals, especially when speaking. Meanwhile, coping strategies are approaches people use in dealing with anxiety. This study determined the level of communication apprehension and coping strategies of the BSED-English major students of the College of Education (CED), Jose Rizal Memorial State University-Tampilisan Campus. The researchers used the descriptive survey method utilizing the survey-questionnaire checklists. The first instrument was adopted from McCroskey's (1981) cited in Diane (2015) Personal Report of Communication Apprehension 24 (PRCA-24). The other one is the validated researchers-made survey statements comprising 30-item statements categorized as strategies for overcoming communication apprehension in group discussions, meetings, interpersonal conversation, and public speaking, with a Cronbach's alpha value of >0.70. The researchers also adopted McCroskey and Richmond's coding and scoring system, weighted mean, and frequency count. Results show that most of the English major students in JRMSU-TC have a moderate level of communication apprehension. Further, there is a difference in the level of communication apprehension when grouped according to group discussion, meetings, interpersonal communication, and public speaking, as well as in the overall weighted mean. Therefore, there is a difference in the level of communication apprehension of the BSED English major students when grouped according to year level. In terms of coping strategies, students used the following strategies: accepting cultural differences, paying attention when talking to others and considering their cultural views, thoroughly preparing before the speech, and thinking of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation as a reward. In this connection, there are proposed interactive activities that may help overcome the students' communication apprehension.

Promoting motivation and reducing stress in medical students by utilizing self-determination theory - a randomized controlled trial in practical psychiatry courses.

Medical students experience high levels of stress and related mental health problems. Students' autonomous and controlled motivation and their mental well-being are interconnected. This study aimed to investigate whether an innovative teaching concept based on self-determination theory (SDT) could improve students' motivation and thereby reduce their stress levels, ultimately providing a healthier framework for learning. In a week-long practical psychiatry course for medical students, a new didactic concept was implemented in half the groups (n = 73) and compared with the preexisting concept (n = 75) as a randomized controlled trial (RCT). To promote the SDT-target factors of perceived autonomy, competence, and relatedness, the methods used included team building, exclusively positive feedback, group discussions, and choice in task distribution. Significant group differences in motivation, stress, performance, and their relationships were analyzed through t-tests, multiple linear regression analyses, mediation analyses, and hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) using questionnaires collected before (t0) and after (t1) the course, and students' exam results (t2). In the innovation group (n = 53), intrinsic motivation/interest (d = 0.41; p = .019) and perceived choice/autonomy (d = 0.33; p = .048) were greater than in the control group (n = 52). While autonomous regulation remained stable, the innovation group showed reduced controlled regulation (d = -0.36; p = .033) and reported significantly lower stress (d = -0.55; p = .003). The observed changes in motivation collectively mediated the stress reduction. However, students in the innovation group achieved lower exam scores, which seemed to result from the absence of critical feedback, but not from the observed differences in motivation or stress. This study demonstrated that enhancing intrinsic motivation through SDT-based teaching can effectively reduce stress in medical students. Exclusively strengths-based positive feedback may have hindered exam performance, but optimizing educational concepts to promote motivation and reduce stress will be a valuable step toward improving medical students' mental well-being.

When do we put things off? A volitional-task attractiveness framework of personality and task-related factors in predicting procrastinatory behavior

Although some people procrastinate more than others, most of us occasionally postpone tasks until tomorrow that we could or should have done today. The present study proposes a volitional-task attractiveness framework including both personality and task-related predictors of actual procrastinatory behavior. Data were collected in a three-wave design around the Christmas break. Using a representative sample of the Dutch population, qualitative data were collected on tasks/situations that induce procrastination ( N = 1835) and the validity of the volitional-task attractiveness framework was explored regarding procrastination on a Christmas break task ( n = 712). Most respondents (95.6%) reported to at least occasionally procrastinate (e.g., on housekeeping, social, and administrative tasks; when busy/stressed, tasks conflict, and being tired). While personality (i.e., trait procrastination) positively predicted procrastinatory behavior, task-related factors (i.e., task importance and task motivation) explained 12% unique additional variance. Whereas intrinsic task motivation negatively and amotivation positively predicted procrastinatory behavior, extrinsic task motivation showed a more complex pattern. Lastly, low intrinsic motivation was less harmful for those higher on trait self-control. The findings align with the proposed volitional-task attractiveness framework, suggesting that both personality and task-related factors as well as their interaction explain actual procrastinatory behavior.

The White privilege of self-determination in entrepreneurship: how educational supports pipeline White students into business ownership

Worker cooperative entrepreneur spaces are predominantly White despite these companies building the foundation of their business model on equity and sustainability. While some studies have investigated racism in entrepreneurship development, no in-depth study has investigated White privilege in this space. Therefore, this study used a qualitative critical narrative analysis approach to explore White privilege in the entrepreneurship journeys of six White individuals who formed a worker cooperative business. Findings suggest that formal and informal educational experiences fostered four themes of White privilege in entrepreneurship: belongingness and competence in privileged entrepreneurship identity, resource-rich support systems, anti-meritocracy perceptions of competence, and privileged psychology of wealth. Findings suggest that educational spaces foster basic psychological needs of intrinsic motivation required for entrepreneurship, however, racialized gatekept access to these spaces perpetuates racial disproportionality in entrepreneurship. This article concludes with situating findings within self-determination theory and discussions of study limitations, implications, and future directions.

Investigating the effect of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in shaping digital entrepreneurial intention: the mediating role of self-efficacy

Purpose The purpose of this study is to explore the growing significance of digital entrepreneurship, which remains in its early stages within entrepreneurship research, with limited understanding of its determining factors. Specifically, it seeks to address the motivations driving individuals to pursue digital entrepreneurship, the factors shaping their intentions, and the essential requirements for success as digital entrepreneurs. Design/methodology/approach This study introduces a model that uses challenge and enjoyment as intrinsic motivation, compensation and outward factors as extrinsic motivation and self-efficacy as theoretical elements to predict digital entrepreneurial intention. Through a comprehensive literature review, the research establishes nine hypotheses in a model tested through structural equation modeling with a survey involving 303 students from various Indonesian universities. Findings The findings underscore the essential role of self-efficacy in forecasting digital entrepreneurial intention. Moreover, self-efficacy is a significant positive mediator in the relationships between challenge motivation, compensation motivation, outward motivation and digital entrepreneurial intention. The study also indicates that enjoyment motivation does not influence self-efficacy, and self-efficacy does not exhibit significant positive mediating effects on enjoyment motivation and digital entrepreneurial intention. The conclusions highlight the significance of intrinsic motivation through challenge, extrinsic motivation through compensation and outward factors and the role of self-efficacy in motivating students to participate in digital entrepreneurship. Originality/value This study contributes significantly to the expanding field of digital entrepreneurial intention by developing a conceptual framework that elucidates the roles of intrinsic and extrinsic motivations in fostering self-efficacy, thereby shaping individuals’ intentions toward digital entrepreneurship.