Intraretinal Hemorrhages Research Articles

Exercise-induced Valsalva retinopathy: A case report and literature review

Introduction. Valsalva retinopathy is an uncommon disorder that usually presents with acute onset of unilateral, or less frequently, bilateral visual impairment varying from subtle scotoma to total vision loss. It occurs as a result of Valsalva?s maneuver. In the vast majority of cases, hemorrhage is preretinal although subretinal, intraretinal and vitreous hemorrhage can be found. Valsalva retinopathy often develops due to numerous triggering activities such as vomiting, coughing, heavy weight lifting, intense aerobic exercise, labor, and general anesthesia. Management options are either clinical observation or invasive techniques. We report a case of premacular hemorrhage due to Valsalva retinopathy induced by gym training. Case outline. A 34-year-old woman was referred to the Eye Clinic, University Clinical Center of Serbia, complaining of sudden and painless unilateral decrease in vision occurred during intense physical activity. Best corrected visual acuity was measured as counting fingers at five meters distance. Dilated fundoscopy demonstrated a large, well demarcated premacular subhyaloid hemorrhage with visible rupture of the retinal vein branch. The patient was treated conservatively. Three months after the onset of symptoms, hemorrhage absorbed and best corrected visual acuity was 20/20. Conclusion. Valsalva retinopathy, although a rare condition, should not be omitted as a differential diagnosis of retinal and vitreous hemorrhages. Standard, observational treatment is generally sufficient for complete vision recovery; however, literature suggests that an individualized approach to each patient is required.

Three branches involvement in retinal vein occlusion

Two patients presented with sudden painless unilateral blurry vision. The first patient was a 57-year-old female, and the second was a 71-year-old male. The medical history of the first patient was significant for diabetes mellitus and systemic hypertension. Funduscopy of both revealed an unusual form of RVO, occlusion of three main veins of the retina, with concomitant intraretinal hemorrhages, and macular edema. An extensive ischemic retina was found in the fluorescein angiography of the second patient. Retinal vein occlusion can present as three main veins occlusion in some patients due to rare anatomic variation.

Eye and SARS-CoV-2 in 2022

The ocular symptoms of COVID-19 are rare, however, the most common is conjunctivitis. Retinal changes, including dilated veins, tortuous blood vessels, intraretinal hemorrhages, and cotton balls are much less common. In addition, there may be swelling of the eyelids, their irritation, most often in combination with conjunctival hyperemia. Moreover, COVID-19 infection may be accompanied by different neuro-ophthalmic disorders and, in rare cases, by mucormycosis. Various ocular complications have been reported following vaccination against COVID-19, including facial nerve palsy, abduction nerve palsy, acute macular neuro-retinopathy, superior ocular vein thrombosis, corneal transplant rejection, membrane inflammation vascular eye disease, central serous chorioretinopathy, reactivation of Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease and onset of Graves’ disease. Chemical eye injuries in children caused by hand sanitizers have also been reported. Although numerous studies have confirmed the antiviral activity of benzalkonium chloride, its role in this regard requires further research.

Multimodal Evaluation of Traumatic Partial Optic Nerve Head Avulsion

A 16-year-old male presented with unilateral sudden vision loss in the left eye, after contusion eye injury from a kicked ball while playing soccer. On admission ophthalmic examination, his best corrected visual acuity (BCVA) was 20/20 in the right eye, and hand motion in the left eye with relative afferent pupillary defect. The fundus exam of the OS demonstrated discrete vitreous hemorrhage, partial ONH avulsion, and peri-papillary intraretinal hemorrhage (Figure 1). Brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the orbits showed no optic nerve abnormality (Figure 1).

Patterns of retinal hemorrhage associated with cardiac arrest and cardiopulmonary resuscitation

Hypoxia and cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) have been proposed as causes of retinal hemorrhage (RH) in children evaluated for abusive head trauma (AHT). We sought to determine the prevalence and characteristics of RH in children who underwent CPR after cardiac arrest. This was a prospective, single-center, consecutive observational study of 38 children (<18 years of age). Indirect ophthalmoscopic examination was completed by an ophthalmologist within 48 hours of CPR. Extensive medical records data were collected to assess for potential confounding factors. Outcomes included the presence and pattern of RH. Of the 38 children, 20 had in-hospital arrest; 18 had out-of-hospital arrest. The median duration of CPR was 10 minutes. Seven children had RH, of whom 6 had an RH pattern consistent with coexistent medical conditions: 4 AHT diagnosable with nonocular findings, including subdural and subarachnoid hemorrhage, rib fractures, abdominal injury (RH pattern: diffuse, numerous, intraretinal and/or multilayered RH); 1 septic shock (RH pattern: 1-2 posterior pole RH); 1 ruptured arteriovenous malformation (RH pattern: 4-8 peripapillary RH). The seventh child had unwitnessed cardiac arrest due to nonfatal drowning and a single superficial intraretinal peripapillary hemorrhage. CPR for cardiac arrest is rarely associated with RH, which, absent coexisting conditions causing retinal hemorrhage, are intraretinal, few in number, and located in the posterior pole. In children who have undergone CPR, when RH are multilayered, or are more than a few in number, or extend outside the posterior pole, another etiology for the RH should be sought.

Sensitivity and specificity of MultiColor imaging in detecting proliferative diabetic retinopathy.

PurposeTo evaluate the accuracy of MultiColor imaging (MC) compared to fluorescein angiography (FA) in detecting proliferative diabetic retinopathy (PDR) and associated diabetic retinopathy features.MethodsFifty-nine eyes from 38 PDR patients were included. MC images were reviewed by 2 independent masked graders. A qualitative analysis based on the following features was performed: neovascular complexes (NVC), disc neovascularization (NVD), neovascularization elsewhere (NVE), microaneurysm (MA), intraretinal hemorrhage (IRH), vitreous hemorrhage (VH), preretinal hemorrhage (PRH), fibrosis, hard exudates (HE), epiretinal membrane (ERM), diabetic macular edema (DME), ischemia and laser spots (LS). Measures of diagnostic accuracy compared to FA were determined.ResultsThe sensitivity for the detection of NVC using MC was 95.1%, with a specificity of 40.0%, positive predictive value (PPV) of 92.9% and negative predictive value (NPV) of 50.0%. Sensitivity and specificity were higher in detecting NVD (88.9% and 76.9%) while NVE registered higher PPV (88.9%). MC was highly sensitive in detecting IRH, HE, ERM and LS (100%), MA (98.0%) and fibrosis (95.5%). Highest specificity was found for VH (100.0%), DME (100.0%), PRH (98.1%) and LS (89.5%). The area under the receiver-operating characteristic analysis of MC was excellent in NVD (0.83, 95% confidence interval (CI), 0.71–0.95, p < 0.001), IRH (0.89, 95% CI 0.74–1.00, p < 0.001), VH (0.81, 95% CI 0.60–1.00, p = 0.005) and PRH (0.89, 95% CI 0.68–1.00, p = 0.004) and outstanding in LS detection (0.95, 95% CI 0.87–1.00, p < 0.001). These results are likely due to the contrast and quality of the MC since better discrimination is enabled by the green wavelength.ConclusionMC is useful in evaluation of PDR patients and can complement noninvasive imaging. MC detected some PDR features more accurately than FA such as NVD, IRH, VH, PRH, and LS.

Massive retinal infiltrates as the presenting sign of chronic myeloid leukemia: Clinical and imaging features of leukemic retinopathy.

To describe the clinical and optical coherence tomography (OCT) features of two cases with bilateral diffuse retinal infiltrates as the only presenting feature of chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) on initial diagnosis and upon relapse. We reported two patients with CML, one at initial diagnosis and one in remission who presented with bilateral subacute visual impairment. Fundal examination revealed bilateral symmetrical leukostatic appearance with increased vascular tortuosity, diffuse retinal infiltrates with size up to 6 disk diameters, retinal hemorrhages, and Roth's spots. OCT showed multiple intra-retinal hyper-reflective foci corresponding to intra-retinal hemorrhages, and outer retinal hyper-reflective foci in area corresponding to retinal infiltrate. The different retinal layers were relatively preserved and distinguishable. White cell count (WCC) were elevated in both patients ranging from 544 to 810 × 109/L. Bone marrow biopsy confirmed the diagnosis of CML in the patient without prior diagnosis and relapse of CML in another patient. Cytogenetic test detected Abelson murine leukemia (ABL) - breakpoint cluster region (BCR) fusion transcript in both cases. Both patients were started on oral imatinib, subsequently WCC returned to within normal values in both cases. Vision and OCT abnormalities improved and reduction in retinal hemorrhages and infiltrates were observed in follow up. This report highlights the important role of ophthalmologists and detailed fundus examination in making a prompt diagnosis of leukemia in patients with visual complaints. Appropriate systemic investigation and hematologist referrals for prompt treatment of CML may improve survival rate and preserve vision.

Diagnosis of type 3 macular neovascularization

Type 3 macular neovascularization is characterized by a complex of pathological vessels located in the sensory retina. Fundus oculi examination reveals intraretinal hemorrhages, macular edema, hard exudates and pigment epithelial detachments. Indocyanine and fluorescein angiography, OCT and angio-OCT are used for diagnosis and treatment monitoring. The treatment efficacy depends on the disease severity and the therapy applied.

Acute Macular Neuroretinopathy: An Atypical Hemorrhagic Presentation

Acute macular neuroretinopathy (AMN) is a rare disease. We report a clinical case of AMN diagnosed in a 46-year-old, Caucasian female with an atypical exuberant hemorrhagic presenta- tion. She referred unilateral paracentral scotomas started 1 day before admission. Fundoscopy revealed several large, dot-and-blot and flame-shaped intraretinal hemorrhages surrounded by reddish-brown, wedge-shaped lesions pointed towards the fovea. Infrared imaging displayed petalloid dark lesions. Optical coherence tomography showed focal ellipsoid zone disruptions, areas of outer retinal hyperreflectivity and deep intraretinal hemorrhages. Fundus autofluorescence and fluorescein angiography displayed hypofluorescent areas due to intraretinal hemorrhages. One-month after presentation, the patient complained about residual scotomas. Classic reddish-brown, wedge-shaped lesions became well-demarcated and intraretinal hemorrhages almost completely resolved. Tomographic findings partially reversed but converted into outer nuclear layer thinning. Visual field examination displayed paracentral scotomas. Our patient revealed the classic AMN lesions. From our knowledge, this is the first reported AMN case with an extensive hemorrhagic presentation.

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Retinal and choroidal manifestations of COVID-19.

The novel coronavirus disease in 2019 (COVID-19) has a wide range of systemic manifestations. Ocular manifestations are now well recognized, with conjunctivitis being the most common. Posterior segment involvement is uncommon and has mainly been described in case reports. This review provides an overview of the posterior segment involvement of COVID-19. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 affects the retina and the choroid through either direct entry or triggering an indirect inflammatory response. Majority of the retinal findings is a result of microvascular derangement leading to cotton wool spots, intraretinal hemorrhages, paracentral acute middle maculopathy, acute macular neuroretinopathy, or retinal vein occlusions. Rarely, inflammation involving the retina or the choroid, or reactivation of previously quiescent uveitis, can be seen. It is important to recognize the possible correlation between ophthalmic conditions and COVID-19 as it can aid in diagnosis, management, and mitigation of the disease.

The RAP study, report 4: morphological and topographical characteristics of multifocal macular neovascularization type 3

PurposeTo report on the morphological characteristics and regional distribution of multifocal macular neovascularization type 3 (mMNV3).MethodsTwenty-two consecutive eyes of 21 patients with mMNV3 were included using multimodal imaging. The count and stage of lesions of all MNV types and the existence of exudate and hemorrhage were determined. Also, we addressed the regional distribution of MNV3 lesions between the superior-inferior and the nasal-temporal halves of the macula, and the range of the distance of the lesions from the central fovea. Furthermore, we explored the number of feeding vessels including the cilioretinal artery.ResultsWe found 51 lesions in 22 eyes of 21 patients. They were bifocal in 16 (73%) eyes, trifocal in 5 (23%), and quadrifocal in one (4%). No lesion of MNV1 or 2 was found. Fifteen (68%), 2 (9%), and 16 (73%) eyes were associated with retinal hard exudate, subretinal pigment epithelium exudate, and intraretinal hemorrhage, respectively. Thirty (59%) lesions were located in the temporal half of the macula, whereas 21 (41%) were located nasally (p = 0.07). One (2%) lesion was closer than 500 µm, 49 (96%) between 500 and 1500 µm, and one (2%) between 1500 and 3000 µm. The lesions were supplied by one arteriole in one (4%) eye, two arterioles in 16 (73%) eyes, and 3 arterioles in 5 (23%) eyes. The CRA contributed as a feeding vessel in 5 (23%) eyes.ConclusionThe multifocal variant of MNV3 has specific morphological and topographical characteristics. Multimodal imaging allows the understanding of the pathomorphological condition in more detail.

Retinal Haemorrhages in Childhood Encephalopathies: Review of a Prospective Research Programme

One important cause of retinal haemorrhages (RHs) in children is abusive head trauma (AHT). Our programme of research was conducted on children admitted to hospital over a seven‐year period who had RHs as part of their clinical presentation. This paper summarises important findings from previous publications. As a prerequisite, two basic studies were necessary: (i) a method of reporting the precise location of the RH in the retina; and (ii) defining a simple clinical classification of RHs based on the appearance of the retinal layer involved. Because raised intracranial pressure (RICP) is a frequent secondary brain insult following serious adult head injury, causing hypoxic‐ischaemic injury with a resultant poor outcome, it was considered whether such RICP might also cause RHs in children. Detailed, state‐of‐the‐art monitoring methods were used to investigate this relationship along with retinal imaging. Methodical documentation of the type, area and lifespan of RHs meant that it was possible to address the question of predicting AHT from RH numbers and characteristics, and to describe not only the duration of different layer haemorrhages, but also a previously unreported observation that some RHs transiently enlarge over two to three days before resolving normally.‘One important cause of retinal haemorrhages (RHs) in children is abusive head trauma’Key Practitioner Messages A new retinal zone classification for research and legal purposes has been developed, as well as a simplified five‐point working classification of RHs, based on existing fundoscopic descriptions. In this cohort study, a young age and a high ‘dot‐blot’ count (&gt;25 intraretinal haemorrhages) are strong predictors of AHT. There is a complex association between the burden of intracranial pressure insult and RHs. Time to resolution of different RHs has been calculated using two‐dimensional RH area pixel counts from sequential retinal imaging. Two patterns of resolution are reported.

Макроаневризма сосуда сетчатки после каротидной эндартерэктомии у пациента с хронической ишемической ретинопатией, ассоциированной с гемодинамически значимым стенозом внутренней сонной артерии (клинический случай)

Purpose. To present a clinical case of development of retinal macroaneurysm after carotid endarterectomy (CE) in patient with chronic ischemic retinopathy (CIR) associated with hemodynamically significant stenosis of the internal carotid artery (ICA). Material and methods. Patient R., 74 years old, diagnosed with CIR of the 1st degree of severity of the right eye. In addition to standard ophthalmic examination methods, Doppler ultrasound with registration of blood flow in the orbital artery and spiral computed tomography of the ICA were performed. Results. Panretinal photocoagulation (PRP) of the retina led to obliteration of the retinal macroaneurysm, resorption of intraretinal hemorrhages, and stabilization of the course of CIR after CE of the ICA. Conclusion. The appearance of retinal macroaneurysm and intraretinal hemorrhages after CE in patient with CIR associated with hemodynamically significant ICA stenosis can be regarded as reperfusion complications after restoration of blood flow in the orbital artery, which requires timely retinal PRP of the retina. Key words: chronic ischemic retinopathy, retinal macroaneurysm, internal carotid artery, carotid endarterectomy.

Influence of bevacizumab therapy and intraretinal hemorrhage in long-term outcomes of hemorrhagic retinal arterial macroaneurysm

This study aimed to evaluate the long-term visual outcomes of hemorrhagic retinal arterial macroaneurysm (RAM), particularly focusing on the influence of bevacizumab therapy and intraretinal hemorrhage (IRH) on the outcomes. This retrospective study included 49 patients diagnosed with hemorrhagic RAM. Patients were divided into the bevacizumab group and observation group depending on the whether they were administered bevacizumab treatment and the IRH group and the non-IRH group based on the presence of IRH at the fovea. Best-corrected visual acuity (BCVA) at diagnosis was compared with that at the final visit. Further, the BCVA at the final visit was compared between the study groups. Multivariate analysis was also performed to identify factors associated with poor BCVA at the final visit. The mean follow-up period was 24.8 ± 15.3 months. The mean logarithm of minimal angle of resolution BCVA was significantly improved from 1.37 ± 0.70 at diagnosis to 0.72 ± 0.62 at the final visit (P < 0.001). There was no significant difference in the BCVA at the final visit between the bevacizumab group and observation group (P = 0.576). However, the BCVA at the final visit was significantly worse in the IRH group than in the non-IRH group (P = 0.002). In multivariate analysis, the presence of IRH was significantly associated with poor BCVA (P = 0.007). Significant long-term visual improvement was noted in hemorrhagic RAM. However, the presence of IRH at the fovea was associated with poor visual prognosis. Bevacizumab therapy did not significantly influence the outcomes.

Retinal Involvement in COVID-19: Results From a Prospective Retina Screening Program in the Acute and Convalescent Phase.

Objective: To detect retinal involvement in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) patients in acute and convalescent phase by their fundus screening.Methods: In a prospective, cross-sectional, observational study (July–November 2020), 235 patients (142 acute and 93 convalescent phase) underwent fundus screening in a tertiary care center in North India. For convalescent phase, “hospitalized” patients (73) were screened at least 2 weeks after hospital discharge, and “home-isolated” patients (20) were screened 17 days after symptom onset/COVID-19 testing.Results: None in acute phase showed any retinal lesion that could be attributed exclusively to COVID-19. Five patients (5.38%) in convalescent phase had cotton wool spots (CWSs) with/without retinal hemorrhage, with no other retinal finding, and no visual symptoms, seen at a median of 30 days from COVID-19 diagnosis.Conclusions: CWSs (and retinal hemorrhages) were an incidental finding in COVID-19, detected only in the convalescent phase. These patients were much older (median age = 69 years) than the average age of our sample and had systemic comorbidities (diabetes mellitus, hypertension, etc.). We propose the term “COVID-19 retinopathy” to denote the presence of CWSs at the posterior pole, occasionally associated with intraretinal hemorrhages, in the absence of ocular inflammation in patients with a history of COVID-19 disease.

Central retinal vein occlusion in a patient using the antipsychotic drug olanzapine: a case report

BackgroundWe report our findings in a patient who developed central retinal vein occlusion (CRVO) and was a chronic user of olanzapine, an antipsychotic medication.Case presentationA 50-year-old Caucasian man, non-smoker, was referred to our clinic with the chief complaint of floater appearance in his left eye for the past 3 days. His past medical history indicated that he had been taking antipsychotic drugs (olanzapine) for about 3 years, with no other systemic disease or risk factors for CRVO.In the examination, his best-corrected visual acuity (BCVA) was 0.7 in the left eye. The fundus showed signs of nonischemic CRVO with subhyaloid hemorrhage and intraretinal hemorrhage in the posterior pole and superior and inferior retina, without macular edema, confirmed by optical coherence tomography (OCT).We ruled out other probable differential diagnoses and risk factors which lead to CRVO through a complete physical exam and blood analysis (complete blood count, glucose, urea, creatinine, lipid profile, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, C-reactive protein, prothrombin time, partial thromboplastin time, Bleeding time (BT), fibrinogen level, proteins, antiphospholipid antibodies, homocysteine blood level, antithrombin III, protein C and S, factor V Leiden, prothrombin mutation, angiotensin-converting enzyme level, other autoantibodies, and human leukocyte antigen [HLA]-B51). Finally, we confirmed the probable side effect of olanzapine in CRVO, which has not been previously reported. A possible pro-thrombogenic mechanism of olanzapine at the molecular level is an affinity for 5-HT2Aserotonin receptors. Blocking these receptors results in increased platelet aggregation and increased blood coagulability.ConclusionsThese results indicate that CRVO can be a complication of chronic use of antipsychotic medications such as olanzapine, as shown for the first time in our case report. Clinicians should question patients who develop a sudden CRVO whether they are using antipsychotic medications such as olanzapine.

Comparative study of refractive error patterns in leukemia patients and controls in Lagos, Nigeria

Aim: To compare the ocular status of leukemics with controls in two tertiary hospitals. This paper focuses more on refractive status as other ocular findings have been reported elsewhere in detail. Materials and Methods: Forty newly diagnosed Patients with Leukemia were recruited and compared with 40 age/sex matched controls (non-leukemics) (80 eyes in each arm). Ocular statuses, including refraction, were assessed. Results: The leukemia was of both acute and chronic variety. Lymphoid, myeloid and bi-phenotypic expressions were seen. Cases presented with various forms of leukemic retinopathy, such as Retinal infiltrates, Roth Spots, perivascular sheathing, Retinal vascular tortuosity, intraretinal hemorrhages and cotton wool spots. None of these were found in controls 54(67.5%) eyes of cases had hypermetropia, (1+Diopter or more) as compared with only 6 of (7.5%) of controls. Patients with leukemia were twenty-five times more likely to develop hypermetropia (OR 25.6, 95% CI 9.8-66.5, p<0.0001). It is postulated this may be due to choroidal infiltration and thickening, with consequent hyperopic shift. Contrarily, there were thrice as many myopes in the control group. Conclusion: This study suggests that hypermetropia is highly likely to develop in patients with leukemia patients and may serve as a marker of disease. A larger study to include axial length measurements, choroidal thickness and central retinal thickness may help to elucidate the mechanism of the hyperopic shift.

Traumatic Branch Retinal Vein Transection and Spontaneous Reanastomosis

A 36-year-old man presented for an inferior scotoma in the left eye 2 weeks after being hit in that eye by another player’s finger while playing basketball. Snellen visual acuity was measured at 20/20. Dilated fundus examination of the left eye revealed preretinal and intraretinal hemorrhages, as well as cotton wool spots along the superior arcade (Fig A). Fluorescein angiography demonstrated branch retinal vein transection with early filling of the proximal segment and delayed filling of the distal segment (Fig B).

The RAP study, report 3: Discoloration of the macular region in patients with macular neovascularization type 3.

Background/AimsTo explore whether the existence and pattern of distribution of macular haemorrhage or exudate can be valuable diagnostic markers for macular neovascularization type 3 (MNV3) in patients with neovascular age‐related macular degeneration.MethodsEighty‐three eyes of 83 consecutive treatment naïve patients with stage 3 MNV3 were enrolled. The diagnosis was based on fluorescein angiography (FA) and optical coherence tomography (OCT). Subretinal and intraretinal haemorrhage and dense exudates were evaluated on colour fundus photography. Fluorescein angiography (FA) images and OCT scans were used to identify the axial location of the haemorrhage. 83 patients with MNV1 and 83 with MNV2 were included as two control groups.ResultsIn the MNV3 group, 62 (75%) eyes had intraretinal haemorrhage and 52 (63%) had dense exudates. 73 (88%) eyes had intraretinal haemorrhage and/or dense exudates. 41 (49%) had both pathologies. The intraretinal haemorrhage was flame shaped over the lesion and punctate or semi‐punctate further away from it and directed to the fovea. No subretinal haemorrhage was noticed. In the MNV1 and MNV2 groups, 11 (13%) and 24 (29%) eyes had subretinal haemorrhage or dense exudates, respectively. No intraretinal haemorrhage was seen in the two control groups. The prevalence of exudates and haemorrhage (irrespective of its location) was greater in MNV3 than in MNV1 or 2 (p < 0.0001).ConclusionThe existence and pattern of distribution of intraretinal haemorrhage is pathognomonic of MNV3. It makes (alone or with dense exudates) the diagnose MNV3 possible using fundoscopy or colour fundus photo and without further diagnostic expenditure.