Intrapersonal Constraints Research Articles

Leisure Constraints, Leisure Constraints Negotiation and Recreation Specialization for Water-Based Tourism Participants in Busan

The purpose of this study was to identify the relationships among leisure constraints, leisure constraints negotiation, and recreation specialization for water-based tourism participants in Busan. Through this study, coastal cities of Korea (e.g., Busan) may attempt to develop marine leisure infrastructure. To achieve the goal of this study, 339 surveys were collected from male and female adults who planned to participate in water-based tourism event in 2017 were delineated as the study population. A convenient, non-random sampling method was used to select participants. After examining the correlation among leisure constraints, leisure constraints negotiation and recreation specialization, the relationships among the three variables was assessed through multiple linear regression analysis. The results of this study were as follows. First, regarding sub-factors of leisure constraints for water-based tourism participants, intrapersonal constraints, interpersonal constraints, and structural constraints had negative effects on leisure constraints negotiation. Second, the sub-factors of intrapersonal constraints and structural constraints had negative effect on recreation specialization, and interpersonal constraints were not statistically significant. Third, leisure constraints negotiation had a partially positive effect on recreation specialization.

Constraints to Chinese women’s leisure-time physical activity across different stages of participation

ABSTRACTThe goal of this study was to further the understanding of leisure-time physical activity (LTPA) constraints across different stages of LTPA as described by the Transtheoretical Model (TTM). Data were collected from female adults (n = 1257) who resided in a metropolitan area in Eastern China using self-administered questionnaires. To examine the potential differences among three types of constraints (e.g. intrapersonal, interpersonal, and structural) within and across each of the five stages of LTPA, a series of ANOVA tests with Scheffe’s post hoc analyses were conducted.The influence of intrapersonal constraints peaked at the precontemplation and contemplation stages, while the influence of interpersonal and structural constraints declined in the maintenance stage. In the precontemplation stage, the intrapersonal constraints were more salient than interpersonal constraints. In the later three stages (e.g. preparation, action, and maintenance), structural constraints were the most salient physical activity barriers.These new findings suggest that the effects of LTPA constraints on TTM stages may be context (e.g. metropolitan China) and population (e.g. females) specific. The study findings can inform future stage-based LTPA constraint research among targeted audiences in different cultures/countries and may inform interventions to promote physical activity levels for Asian women at different stages of participation.

都市型市民マラソン大会への参加における制約とランニング活動 動向の関係：個人内の制約と対人的制約からの検討

都市型市民マラソン大会への参加における制約とランニング活動 動向の関係：個人内の制約と対人的制約からの検討

How Do Leisure Constraints Influence the Revisit Intentions of Music Festival Visitors?

Leisure constraints affecting participation can be divided into intrapersonal, interpersonal, and structural constraints. Only a few studies in the event industry have investigated the role of leisure constraints. These studies show different effects of leisure constraints on participation. The purpose of this article is to examine the influence of leisure constraints on revisit intention regarding music festivals. This study is of quantitative nature and utilizes survey research. A sample of 1,063 respondents was used within the analyses, measuring the influence of perceived constraints on revisit intention. The results show that intrapersonal constraints (a lack of importance and interest) and structural constraints (travel time, a lack of time, costs, and a lack of satisfaction with the festival area) significantly influence revisit intention. In line with results from other leisure industries, intrapersonal constraints show the strongest effects. Interpersonal constraints do not affect revisit intentions. Music festivals should ideally maintain a high level of engagement with the visitors throughout the year to ensure continuous involvement.

대중음악축제의 참여제약, 협상전략 및 참여의도간 영향연구

This study aims to find out the influence of participation constraints of popular music festival participants on constraints negotiation and the influence of constraints and negotiation on participation intention. Based on previous studies, constraint factors and negotiation factors were deduced and an empirical research was conducted targeting S Rock Festival. The analysis of 226 valid samples deduced as constraint factors of popular music festival participants, intrapersonal constraint, structural constraint, and interpersonal constraint, and as negotiation factors, improving finance, time management, structural improvements, and changing interpersonal relations. The result of the study was as follows. First, among constraint factors of popular music festival participants, intrapersonal constraint had a negative effect on changing interpersonal relations and structural improvement among negotiation factors. On the other hand, structural constraint and interpersonal constraint had no significant effect on negotiation factors. Second, among negotiation factors, structural improvement and interpersonal relations had a positive influence on participation intention. improving finance and time management did not have significant effect on participation intention. Third, among constraint factors, intrapersonal constraint and interpersonal constraint had a negative influence on participation intention, while structural constraint had no significant influence on participation intention. These results will serve as base data to systematically understand the behaviors of popular music festival participants.

The Relationship between Perceived Underemployment and Wellbeing: Evidence from Mid-Size Canadian Cities

This study examines the association between underemployment and quality of life, with a focus the explanatory power of community and leisure factors. Using survey data collected by the Canadian Index of Wellbeing in four mid-size communities (N = 5561), a subsample of participants was selected who indicated that they worked for pay (n = 2845). About one-fifth of workers were underemployed, based on a perceived mismatch between their job and their education and training. Guided by a modified perspective of the Leisure Constraints Model that includes intrapersonal, interpersonal, and structural level constraints and/or facilitators to participation, data were analyzed using two linear regression models examining overall wellbeing and self-assessed mental health. After controlling for socio-demographic characteristics in each model, mediators were introduced and then further probed to determine significant pathways in the relationships. In both cases, the direct effect of underemployment was negative. Wellbeing among underemployed workers was partially mediated by two structural, and one interpersonal factors: time for self, perceived access to recreation and cultural opportunities, and sense of community. Mental health was fully mediated by time for self and sense of community. In a test of contrast between significant pathways, there were no differences in either model, suggesting that each of the significant leisure moderators contributed equally to the relationship between underemployment and quality of life. Community and leisure factors have been relatively unexamined to date, but results show that they should be considered for inclusion in future research on personal outcomes of underemployment.

Exploring sub-dimensions of intrapersonal constraints to visiting “dark tourism” sites: a comparison of participants and non-participants

ABSTRACTPrevious studies have focused on exploring why people seek out sites of death, whereas little is known about why they do not visit or revisit such sites. This paper aims to fill this gap by exploring the inner constraints on visiting the darkest edge of the dark tourism spectrum among both participants (N = 460) and non-participants (N = 275). By identifying four sub-dimensions of intrapersonal constraints in the context of dark tourism (i.e., traumatic memory, emotions of fear and depression, taboos and cultural ideas and lack of interest), an extension of a leisure constraints framework was created. The findings move beyond the prior studies on tourism constraints, which solely measure intrapersonal constraints as an overall construct, and thus explain the non-homogeneity of this construct. This study also contributes to a more nuanced understanding of how non-participants differ from dark tourists on the psychological constraints of visiting sites of death.

Perceived constraints to physical activity and sport: a cross-cultural study between Iranian and Hungarian university students

ABSTRACTThis study aimed to discover and compare the students’ perceived constraints toward participation in physical activity and sport at Iranian and Hungarian universities. The hierarchical model of leisure constraints was used as a theoretical framework of this research. Persian and Hungarian language questionnaires yielded useable data from 1315 Iranian and 793 Hungarian participants. Descriptive and inferential analyses (t-test, MANOVA) were used for analyzing data. The results indicated that Iranian and Hungarian students experienced intrapersonal and structural constraints differently; however, they similarly perceived interpersonal constraints. Furthermore, female students perceived all kinds of constraints more than males at the Iranian universities, while Hungarian students did not show any differences based on gender. From the results it can be concluded that the differences between Iranian and Hungarian students might be related to various culture, values, norms and traditions dominant in each country. Also, various social and economic situations might affect the differences between them. The negative attitude of Iranian society toward women sport is mostly affecting the female students’ participation in regular activities in Iran. However, poor economic situation in Hungary and in most of Hungarian universities is the main hindering factor toward Hungarian students’ involvement in sport.

Too dark to revisit? The role of past experiences and intrapersonal constraints

Laden with assorted emotional factors, dark tourism behaviors are heavily influenced by emotion-related factors, such as intrapersonal constraints. By deploying a survey of tourists visiting the Memorial of the Victims of the Nanjing Massacre, which lies on the darkest edges of the dark tourism spectrum, this study probes how well one's intrapersonal constraints and past experiences relate to one's revisit intention. Results indicate that there are four sub-dimensions in intrapersonal constraints, namely culture, emotion, escape, and incuriousness. The cognitive experiences have significantly positive effects on the revisit intention either through direct effects or via the mediating variables of intrapersonal constraints, while intrapersonal constraints play an indirect-only mediating role in the relationship between affective experiences and revisit intentions. Theoretical and practical contributions of the study findings are discussed within the realm of dark tourism.

青年の野外レクリエーションの参加動機と阻害要因が野外レクリエーション参加に与える影響：日本とカナダの文化的類似・相違点の比較検討

Participation in outdoor recreation has declined in Japan, especially among adolescents. For example, in 2013 no outdoor recreation activities were ranked in the top 20 most frequently participated sports by Japanese adolescents. Conversely, in Canada where sport promotion policies are well established, participation in outdoor recreation increased slightly between 1992 and 2005. To better understand an individual's level of leisure participation, his or her motivations and constraints should be jointly examined. Having said this, however, to date the concept of constraints has been overlooked in Japanese leisure studies and sport sociology. Therefore, the purposes of this study were to examine: (a) cultural similarities and differences in motivations for and constraints to outdoor recreation participation between Japanese and Euro-Canadian adolescents; and (b) how motivations and constraints affected individuals' frequency of participation in outdoor recreation within each culture. To address these purposes, an on-site questionnaire was employed at Kobe University and the University of Alberta. In total, 255 Japanese and 228 Euro-Canadian undergraduate students provided useable data. RESULTS of Hotelling T2 tests and follow-up t-tests indicated that Japanese participants reported significantly lower independence/autonomy motivation and higher intrapersonal constraint than their Euro-Canadian counterparts. Hierarchical multiple regression results revealed that Canadian independence/autonomy motivation positively predicted participation in outdoor recreation, whereas both Japanese and Canadian intrapersonal constraint negatively predicted participation in outdoor recreation. These analyses also indicated that adding constraints, after controlling for motivations, significantly increased the coefficient of determination (R2) in both cultures. This cross-cultural study has both theoretical and practical implications. In regard to the former, it: (a) addressed reported inadequacies in the existing body of cross-cultural knowledge on leisure behaviours; and (b) indicated that not only motivations but also constraints are key variables in explaining outdoor recreation participation in both Japan and Canada. In regard to the latter, this study's results suggests that negotiating constraints, particularly intrapersonal constraints, could play a prominent role in promoting outdoor recreation participation among Japanese adolescents. By conducting cross-cultural research, North American leisure theories and knowledge can be applied to Japanese culture if cultural similarities and differences have first been considered, measured, and evaluated.

Leisure Facilitators and Recreation Specialization for Female Participants in Running Events

<p>The purpose of this study was to identify the relationship between leisure facilitators and recreation specialization for female participants in running events. To achieve the goal of this study, 330 surveys were collected from female participants living in the Seoul area selected through a convenience sampling method. After examining the correlation between leisure facilitators and recreation specialization, the relationship between the two variables was assessed through multiple linear regression analysis.</p>First, for socio-demographic variables pertaining to females who participated in running events, significant differences were found between frequency of participating in running events, participants’ running duration, running exercise participation time, and frequency of running exercise participation as sub-factors of leisure facilitators. Second, for socio-demographic variables pertaining to females who participated in running events, significant differences were revealed between income, frequency of participating in running events, participants’ running duration, running exercise participation time, and frequency of running exercise participation as sub-factors of recreation specialization. Last, regarding sub-factors of leisure facilitators for females participating in running events, intrapersonal constraints, interpersonal constraints, and structural constraints had positive effects on past experience as an economic investment in recreation specialization. Intrapersonal constraints and structural constraints had positive effects on centrality-to-lifestyle for recreation specialization factors.

Development of a Scale for Tourism Facilitators

ABSTRACTThe purpose of this study was to develop and validate a scale of tourism facilitators that may play a significant role in participating in tourism activities. A scale of tourism facilitators was developed directly from the results in this study. One of the most important findings is that the tourism facilitator scale shows relatively acceptable measurement properties and reasonable levels of fit. The investigation of internal consistency and the CFA of the scale confirm the sufficient reliability and validity of the proposed model. The results also provide evidence that the three dimensions of tourism facilitators were negatively related to the three dimensions of tourism constraints, except for the relationship between intrapersonal facilitators and interpersonal constraints. Future studies should examine other countries to validate a more stable tourism facilitator scale and its relationships with related variables. The further testing of the concept of tourism facilitators can determine the role of facilitators at different stages of the destination decision-making process. The findings also provided preliminary evidence supporting the feasibility and value of using the new instrument as well as its relevance to both fundamental and applied research in investigating tourist behavior.

Analyzing Non-Participation in Domestic Tourism: a Combined Framework

ABSTRACTNon-tourists comprise a large potential market, but are rarely studied in research. This paper aims to examine the reasons behind the non-participation of individuals in domestic tourism through a proposed combined framework which incorporates concepts presented in the psychological continuum model and constraint negotiation model from the field of sports and leisure respectively. Data were analyzed using binary logit regression and comparative analysis. The findings indicate that tourism cognition/awareness, tourism affection/interest, and tourism behavior intention, have a significant effect on the non-participation of individuals in domestic tourism while intrapersonal and economic constraints are regarded as the most difficult constraints to be negotiated by non-tourists.

Leisure constraints in the university setting in Ghana

Knowledge of leisure constraints needs to be discussed within specific contexts. However, little attention has been paid to understanding leisure constraints within the context of educational institutions in developing countries. This study was based on a case study of 1160 randomly sampled students from the University of Cape Coast in Ghana. The results show that students were inclined towards sedentary leisure activities. The major constraints encountered by the students were interpersonal. Specifically, female students encountered more interpersonal constraints than their male colleagues, younger students encountered more interpersonal constraints than older ones and lastly, students with less income were more constrained by intrapersonal constraints than those with high income. Implications for improving students' leisure participation are discussed within the perspective of university settings in developing countries.

Sport labour migration: understanding leisure activities of American professional basketball players abroad

This study used insights from leisure constraint theory as sensitising concepts to generate new insights on the experiences of international sport labour migrants, thus contributing to research on ‘the leisure-globalisation nexus’. We examined empirical data from broader qualitative research on the sport labour migration of American basketball players, specifically their leisure activities outside of the basketball arena. We interviewed a total of 12 participants who had played in 21 countries, including 15 European. Major themes related to leisure experiences were technology, food consumption, travel and relationships. We discussed those themes in relation to intrapersonal, interpersonal and structural constraints. Examples illustrated the interplay between the three dimensions of the leisure constraint model. Findings supported a multidirectional or cyclical relationship between all three parts. We located the participants of this study within previously established typologies of sport labour migrants and provided suggestions for future research.

Gendered perspectives of leisure patterns and constraints of university students in Ghana

Leisure researchers have contended that leisure patterns and constraints are significantly influenced by gender. Despite this assertion, little has been done to compare gender differences across leisure patterns and constraints within a single study population beyond the treatment of sex as a variable. The focus of this study was to assess the gendered leisure patterns and constraints of university students in Ghana, Africa. Data were collected from randomly sampled students at the University of Cape Coast and analyzed with a chi square test and a multivariate analysis of variance. Female students recorded low participation in three main domains of leisure, namely socializing, creative, and physical activities, as compared to their male counterparts. Intrapersonal and interpersonal leisure constraints were found to be associated with female students’ leisure pursuits. It was therefore concluded that female students are more constrained in their leisure pursuits than their male counterparts.

The Constraints Experienced and Negotiation Strategies Attempted by Nonparticipants of a Festival Event

ABSTRACTThe leisure constraints and negotiation model was used to examine nonparticipation in a large festival event. A purposive sampling survey was conducted with 502 event nonparticipants. The results indicated that the hierarchical leisure constraints model is a useful framework for understanding the constraints to attendance at special events. Consistent with previous research on constraints to participation, structural constraints were the greatest category of constraint, followed by interpersonal and intrapersonal constraints. Further, nonparticipants who experienced intrapersonal constraints were least likely to attempt negotiations relative to time, partners, or finances. Additionally, this study compared the constraints of nonparticipants who were interested and disinterested in attending the event and found disinterested nonparticipants perceived greater intrapersonal, interpersonal, and structural constraints than those interested in attending, suggesting that constraints create amotivation. Disinterested event nonparticipants were also less likely to negotiate constraints to participation, especially barriers related to lack of time and partners with whom to participate. Finally, interested nonparticipants who experienced intrapersonal constraints were less likely to attempt to negotiate constraints. This study broadens the scope of the constraints and negotiation discussion to include the context of a community festival event, as well as differences in constraints and negotiation between interested and disinterested event nonparticipants.

Sport Tourism: Physically-disabled Sport Tourists’ Orientation

It is a challenge for sport tourism providers to organize the exceptional demand of physically-disabled individuals. Analyzing the orientation of physically-disabled in sport tourism participation provides the basis for further theoretical recognition of constraints and negotiations in sport tourism in general, besides facilitating related providers and policy makers in understanding of strategies development to promote sporting events among individuals with disability. The objective of the current paper is answered based on survey research conducted in a representative sample of 312 physically-disabled Malaysian. According to the results, physically-disabled Malaysian struggle with a mix of structural constraints, interpersonal constraints, intrapersonal constraints, and cultural constraints. Majority of them are structurally constrained in sporting event participation. Although transportation is the main constraint factor, participations are possible through adoption of interpersonal coordination strategies, skill acquisition strategies, time management strategies, and financial resources strategies

Cross-border leisure mobility styles in the Basque Eurocity

The constitution of Europe has fostered greater human and other mobilities across European borders, however it is not clear whether the border is still actually present in some places or inhibits cross-border mobilities. In this context, a leisure mobilities approach has been used to identify the mobility styles in the Basque Eurocity corridor – a cross-border area between Spain and France. The analysis focuses on leisure mobilities and identifies four different mobility styles based upon leisure orientation variables in terms of values, attitudes and lifestyles; nationality; and socio-demographic characteristics: (1) time-conscious workers, (2) French shoppers, (3) mobile youth and (4) older and less mobile. The results indicate that different leisure orientations and participation levels are highly significant in the constitution of mobility styles, which are usually correlated only with national demographic data. Furthermore, it was identified that a higher identification of mobility constraints was not related to lower levels of participation. Instead, the groups with higher mobility and participation rates raised more awareness of the constraints related to transport and information. Finally, intrapersonal constraints such as age and lack of health showed a greater impact on cross-border mobility, while, unexpectedly, a higher identification of cultural and linguistic constraints was not perceived by participants.

An Investigation of Constraints Restricting Urban Nigerian Women from Participating in Recreational Sport Activities

Recreational sport participation is valued as a way to improve overall quality of life. However, in developing countries such as Nigeria, past research studies have focused on factors attributed to recreational sport participation of men. Research has yet to investigate factors contributing to recreational sport participation of women. Thus, the purpose of this study was to highlight the experiences of Nigerian women's recreational sport constraints and factors that facilitate their participation. Using data from interviews with women in Lagos, the findings suggest that women experience structural, interpersonal, and intrapersonal constraints, as well as negotiate constraints through prioritizing, compromising, and anticipating. This study contributes to the limited body of research on constraints as it relates to recreational sport of Nigerian women.