Metaphor Interpretation Research Articles

THE PSYCHOLINGUISTIC CHARACTERISTICS IDENTIFIED AT STUDENTS’ VALUE ORIENTATIONS BY THE MEANS OF METAPHOR

The article aim is to identify and analyse the individual psycholinguistic features, value determinants of speech production via metaphorical image interpretations made by students in different art specialties. To achieve this goal, the following methods were used: analysis, synthesis, comparison and generalization, classification, verbal and projective methods, a free associative experiment, the content and intent analysis, the methods of quantitative and qualitative analysis, the structural method. Results. The social nature of speaking is stressed; a speech event is understood as an external result of an individual’s internal processes of perception, mental organization, his/her socialization and cognition. The role of metaphorical methods for cognition of unconscious value determinants is substantiated. An emphasis is laid on the emergence and linguistic presentation of mental and value models: metaphorization is regarded as a hidden mechanism and a driving force of the language ontogenesis. The performed psycholinguistic analysis of students’ values as a component of their worldview as artists, represented through their speech constructs, revealed their individual semantic content for used words. Conclusions. Basing on the analysed data from the used projective and verbal methods, we have revealed: 1) conceptual metaphors reflecting the cognitive function and embodying certain value groups; 2) the students’ psycholinguistic features and priority values, value projections onto their verbal self-presentation of their metaphorical image of “Self-book”: lexical saturation, emotional richness, egocentrism (“Adaptation” group); sociocentrism, emotionality, figurative and value elements of professional concepts, images of the future, the role of the social environment, the need for psychological support and harmonious life (“Socialization” group); detailing, egocentrism, moral and aesthetic values (“Individualization” group); predominance of the verbal, interrogative and imperative modalities in the metaphors presented by the students, their egocentric motivational orientations, generalized and specific nature of the used lexical units.

Plant Metaphors in Indonesian Proverbs

This research was related to the use of plant metaphors in Indonesian proverbs. It was aimed to describe (1) the use of the name of the plants in Indonesian proverbs; (2) plant metaphorical interpretation in Indonesian proverbs. The data used were written data from the Indonesian proverbs dictionary by Badudu and the collection of proverbs by Lestari. The proverbs in the proverb book collections were observed, collected, and selected based on the topic using the plant names in Indonesian proverbs. The result shows that there are plant names used in the proverbs. Those are (1) the parts of the plant consisting of seeds, roots, stems, branches, leaves, and flowers; (2) plant classification based on the seed is dicot and monocot. Dicot plant includes pomegranate, nuts, coffee, jackfruit, yam, chili, ‘cempedak’, durian, limes, and pepper. In contrast, monocot plants are bamboo, cucumber, rice, grass, sugar cane, roses, bananas, corn, coconut, turmeric, and betel. The interpretation of the metaphorical meanings shows that proverbs tell the plants as a representation of strength and weakness, good attitude, fortune, the simple life, and the bad things.

‘A Long Battle Ahead’: Malaysian and Singaporean Prime Ministers Employ War Metaphors for COVID-19

The short article reports a preliminary exploration about how the Prime Ministers of Malaysia and Singapore frame COVID-19 through metaphors. The framing can shape our understanding of the virus. The Prime Ministers gave public broadcasts on or to the media in March, April and May 2020. The analysis of the broadcasts is comprised of metaphor identification using the Metaphor Identification Procedure (MIP), and metaphor interpretation. COVID-19 in the Prime Ministers’ broadcasts is conceptualized by a few metaphors. The Prime Ministers utilize similar metaphors about the virus because metaphors of direction, journey, liquid and war are noted. covid-19 is war is selected because war metaphors have been recognized for other diseases and they have been commonly deployed during this pandemic. War metaphors frame several aspects of the virus, which cover its description, impact on multiple areas, the actors involved and their reactions. The war scenario can evoke a sense of alarm regarding the threat and severity of COVID-19.

Openings of uncertainty: critiques of modernity in the drawings of Lars Lerup and Gunnar Asplund

This article explores the critique of modernity performed by the unbuildable architectural drawings of Lars Lerup. Focusing on a single drawing entitled ‘The Opening’ (1980), it questions how uncertainty in architectural drawing can operate discursively to interrogate the functional concerns of representational accuracy. The article considers the contribution of this drawing to Lerup’s unbuilt Nofamily House project (1980–1981) and examines his commentary on the 1978 MoMA retrospective on Swedish architect Gunnar Asplund (1885–1940). In so doing, it demonstrates the impact of Asplund’s work on Lerup’s thinking via commentaries on Asplund in the postmodern critique of the 1970s and 1980s. Through a comparative analysis of the drawings for Asplund’s Villa Snellman (1917–1918) and Lerup’s Nofamily House, the article argues that both architects developed parallel processes to critique either end of the twentieth-century modern project by using unbuildable elements in their drawings. Both Asplund’s and Lerup’s projects evidence the gap of uncertainty between drawing and building, as identified by Robin Evans. They contest the functional subjugation of the drawing to the building and question the homogeneity of modernity’s rationalist ideology. Finally, the article demonstrates that Lerup’s interpretation of uncertainty was a unique method of provocation in drawing that foregrounded the individuation of making meaning in architecture. In a manner that was distinct from the populist reductive ideas of metaphoric interpretation during the 1970s and 1980s, Lerup used unbuildable architectural drawings to establish a dialogue of interpretation between the drawing and the viewer. This empathetic method of making meaning confirms Evans’s assertion that drawing connects to architecture by engendering its imaginary forms with meaning.

Idioms, argument ellipsis and LF-copy

In this paper, I make critical use of certain word order and semantic properties of ditransitive expressions to develop an argument for the LF-copy theory of argument ellipsis (Oku in A theory of selection and reconstruction in the minimalist perspective, University of Connecticut, Storrs, 1998; Saito in Lang Res 43:203–222, 2007; in: Shibatani, Miyagawa, and Noda (eds) Handbook of Japanese syntax, Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin, 2017; Sakamoto in J East Asian Linguist 25:243–274, 2016; Escape from silent syntax, University of Connecticut, Storrs, 2017). Firstly, I summarize and extend Sakamoto’s (in: Paper presented at the 148th Annual Meeting of the Linguistic Society of Japan, Hosei University, Tokyo, 2014; 2016; 2017) argument based on rigid ditransitive idioms and show that the possible ellipsis of a non-idiomatic argument to the exclusion of the idiom chunks and the ditransitive verb is best accounted for in terms of argument ellipsis. Secondly, I point out a hitherto unnoticed observation, that no internal constituent within ditransitive figurative expressions may undergo ellipsis without losing a non-literal, metaphorical interpretation associated with its containing VP, and I demonstrate how this observation presents critical evidence in favor of the LF-copy theory of argument ellipsis over its competing PF-deletion alternative.

Fenótipo Ampliado do Autismo e Habilidades Pragmáticas em Pais e Mães de Crianças com e sem Transtorno do Espectro Autista

O fenótipo ampliado do autismo (FAA) tem sido definido como traços subclínicos que configuram a expressão fenotípica de uma suscetibilidade genética para o desenvolvimento do Transtorno do Espectro Autista (TEA). A literatura é ainda controversa quanto às dificuldades nas habilidades comunicativo-pragmáticas constituírem uma especificidade do FAA. Assim, este estudo comparou o desempenho de pais e mães de crianças e adolescentes com e sem TEA (N=52) em tarefas de habilidades comunicativo-pragmáticas e indicadores de FAA. Foram aplicados o Broader Autism Phenotype Questionnaire (BAPQ) e subtestes da Bateria Montreal de Avaliação da Comunicação (Bateria MAC), além da Escala de Inteligência Wechsler (WASI). Os resultados demonstraram que pais de crianças com TEA apresentaram: a) maior dificuldade em linguagem pragmática do BAPQ (U=210.50, p< .005, η2=0.11), ainda que não tenham fechado critério para FAA e b) habilidades comunicativo-pragmáticas (ex.: discurso conversacional, U=118.50, p<.01, η2=0.31; prosódia, U=214.00, p<.005, η2=0.10) inferiores às de pais de crianças sem TEA. Foi ainda verificado que o grupo comparativo (pais de crianças sem TEA) apresentou maiores escores no QI total (U=202.50, p<.005, η2=0.11) e verbal (U=207.50, p<.005, η2=0.12) em relação ao grupo clínico. Conclui-se que: a) habilidades cognitivo-pragmáticas podem ser um aspecto central e provavelmente específico do FAA em familiares de crianças e adolescentes com TEA; b) as diferenças entre os grupos quanto ao QI podem estar relacionadas mais a diferenças em variáveis socioeconômicas do que ao FAA, o que merece ser mais investigado em futuros estudos.

Development and Evaluation of a Whiteboard Video Series to Support the Education and Recruitment of Committed Unrelated Donors for Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation.

Whiteboard videos are a popular video format, allowing viewers to see drawings of concepts alongside explanatory text and speech. We hypothesized that whiteboard videos could support the education and recruitment of unrelated stem cell donors in Canada. A series of 5 sharable whiteboard videos about stem cell donation was produced and posted online in September 2018, including 1 full-length video (https://youtu.be/V4fVBtxnWfM) and 4 shorter videos titled "What Is Stem Cell Transplantation?" "How Does the Matching Process Work?" "How Are Stem Cells Donated?" and "How Can I Register as a Stem Cell Donor?" In the videos, metaphorical interpretations of stem cells as factories and genetic markers as barcode labels are employed to communicate complex concepts. The particular need for young, male, and ethnically diverse donors is reflected in the characters portrayed. Surveys demonstrated the videos (1) were used and valued by stakeholders in donor recruitment and (2) significantly improved objective and self-reported knowledge about stem cell donation and reduced donation-related ambivalence among viewers from the most-needed donor demographics. Use of the whiteboard videos was also associated with improved donor recruitment outcomes in Canada. Our work is relevant to donor registries and recruitment organizations worldwide that seek to improve their recruitment efforts.

We Shall Fight: Speaker-Exclusive We as a Grammatical Metaphor

The first person plural pronoun cannot be considered as an expression of pluralization of the first. Its semantic boundaries are defined in context, and this inherent vagueness an be pragmatically exploited for communicative purposes. Beyond the frequently investigated opposition between (addressee-) inclusive vs exclusive forms, this paper explores non-prototypical uses of the first person plural pronoun, focusing on the conflicts that arise when it is used in contexts that semantically exclude the speaker. Speaker-exclusive forms can occur in different situations, ranging from interpersonal exchanges to public discourse. The paper investigates their different semantic implications, highlighting their common traits as well as their crucial peculiarities. Both the review of the literature and the analysis of actual examples bring forth the different values and functions of various speaker-exclusive occurrences of the first person plural. A more systematic categorization of the forms can be obtained adopting a metaphorical interpretation, which on the one hand emphasises their common denominator (i.e. speaker-exclusiveness) and, on the other, sheds light on their varying communicative potential.

¿Dar la mano o darle cuello? Construcciones metafóricas con sustantivos corporales.

El verbo dar suele combinarse con sustantivos anatómicos para formar expresiones de interpretación metafórica. En este trabajo intentaremos explicar cómo es que dicho verbo puede construirse con estos sustantivos y qué implicaciones semántico-sintácticas acarrea sus resultados construccionales. El propósito es ir más allá del presupuesto de que se trata de metáforas. Intentaremos explicar este fenómeno policonstruccional desde la confluencia de tres modos de aproximación: la lingüística cognoscitiva, la gramática de construcciones y la semántica de marcos. Sostenemos que las expresiones con sustantivos anatómicos provienen de la construcción esquemática del verbo dar, la transferencia, que pasa por un proceso de cambio semántico, pero que conserva algunas de las propiedades de la construcción original.

Computational generation of slogans

AbstractIn advertising, slogans are used to enhance the recall of the advertised product by consumers and to distinguish it from others in the market. Creating effective slogans is a resource-consuming task for humans. In this paper, we describe a novel method for automatically generating slogans, given a target concept (e.g., car) and an adjectival property to express (e.g., elegant) as input. Additionally, a key component in our approach is a novel method for generating nominal metaphors, using a metaphor interpretation model, to allow generating metaphorical slogans. The method for generating slogans extracts skeletons from existing slogans. It then fills a skeleton in with suitable words by utilizing multiple linguistic resources (such as a repository of grammatical relations, and semantic and language models) and genetic algorithms to optimize multiple objectives such as semantic relatedness, language correctness, and usage of rhetorical devices. We evaluate the metaphor and slogan generation methods by running crowdsourced surveys. On a five-point Likert scale, we ask online judges to evaluate whether the generated metaphors, along with three other metaphors generated using different methods, highlight the intended property. The slogan generation method is evaluated by asking crowdsourced judges to rate generated slogans from five perspectives: (1) how well is the slogan related to the topic, (2) how correct is the language of the slogan, (3) how metaphoric is the slogan, (4) how catchy, attractive, and memorable is it, and (5) how good is the slogan overall. Similarly, we evaluate existing expert-made slogans. Based on the evaluations, we analyze the method and provide insights regarding existing slogans. The empirical results indicate that our metaphor generation method is capable of producing apt metaphors. Regarding the slogan generator, the results suggest that the method has successfully produced at least one effective slogan for every evaluated input.

The temple in images of the Annunciation: A double dogmatic symbol according to the Latin theological tradition (6th-15th centuries)

This article aims to unveil the doctrinal meanings that many Church Fathers and theologians have deciphered in some Old Testament terms such as templum, tabernaculum, domus Sapientiae, arca and other similar expressions related to sacred spaces or containers. In many specific cases, they have interpreted these expressions as metaphors or symbols of the Virgin Mary’s womb and Christ’s human nature. As a consequence, these interpretive approaches are reflected in some images of the Annunciation of the 14th and 15th centuries. So this article will analyze first a selected set of patristic, theological, and liturgical texts, and secondly, will examine eight paintings of the Annunciation with a temple-shaped house to see if there is an essential relation between those exegetical texts and these pictorial images. Based on that double analysis, it seems reasonable to conclude that the temple depicted in these Annunciations is a visual metaphor that illustrates the doctrinal meanings decrypted by the Fathers and theologians in their interpretations of the textual metaphors mentioned above.

Complementarity of the Relevance-theoretic and Cognitive Linguistic Approaches to Metaphor Study: A Critical Review

This paper attempts to take a critical review of research work on the complementarity of the cognitive linguistic and relevance-theoretic approaches to metaphor study. Addressing the current concerns and problems of metaphor studies, the complementarity view demonstrates the cooperative potential of relevance-theoretic and cognitive linguistic approaches which will benefit metaphor studies and give full accounts of metaphor understanding and interpretation. In particular, the relevance-theoretic approach gives an account of ad hoc concept, emergent property and mental imagery which complements the cognitive linguistics and helps solve some issues in metaphor interpretation.

Interpretation of the Metaphors of Light/dark In Selected Poems by Margaret Atwood - A Feminist Study

Interpretation of the Metaphors of Light/dark In Selected Poems by Margaret Atwood - A Feminist Study

Interpretation of metaphors in Chinese poetry: Where did Li Bai place his emotions?

Abstract Recently, with an increasing number of metaphor studies being conducted, research on metaphor interpretation has set off an upsurge. Although a multitude of studies on the interpretation of metaphors exists, many are limited to the understanding of literal meanings without attempting an interpretation of hidden emotions in metaphorical expressions. There are particularly few studies on metaphorical emotions interpretation in literary studies with rich and implicit emotions, such as classical Chinese poetry. This study proposes the interpretation of the metaphorical emotions of special objects in Chinese poetry based on emotion distribution. We present a statistical approach to calculate the emotion distribution of our target objects by exploiting contextual emotion mining. According to the emotion distribution, the emotion with the highest probability is considered the metaphorical emotion of the target object. Subsequently, the metaphorical emotion can be determined as a positive or negative sentiment based on expert annotations. Using the proposed method, we have tested two representative objects, ‘月’ (moon) and ‘风’ (wind), and the accuracy performances were 84% and 83.33%, respectively, for sentiment detection and 66% and 70% for emotion-specific metaphorical interpretation. The results demonstrate that our approach can be used to assist readers with metaphorical emotional understanding in Chinese poetry.

Old Testament Conceptual Metaphors and the Christology of Luke’s Gospel

Gregory R. Lanier is Assistant Professor of New Testament and Dean of Students at Reformed Theological Seminary in Orlando, FL. A recent graduate of Cambridge University, this work is an adaption of Lanier’s dissertation under the guidance of Simon Gathercole. Lanier’s work falls within the cross-sections of early Christology, the use of Israel’s Scriptures in the NT, and contemporary metaphor theory (CMT). Specifically, Lanier focuses on the use of four metaphors drawn from the OT and Jewish tradition and their use in Christologically significant ways in Luke 1:68–69; 1:78–79; 13:34; 20:17–18. His thesis is as follows: “Luke re-maps these metaphors to conceptualize Jesus’ identity in terms that are reserved for deliverer-figures in some cases in OT/Jewish tradition, but uniquely for the God of Israel in others” (p. 2). It is important to note that, in Lanier’s analysis, he is focusing on Christological metaphors that have not been commented on ad nauseum and do not present themselves as obvious titles. Lanier is concerned to explain away the ambiguity of four central metaphors.To make his argument, Lanier divides the subject matter into six chapters. Chapter one defines the contours of his arguments. He begins with an overview of Luke’s Christology, which leads to how this NT subfield has been affected by paying attention to OT influences. The introduction concludes with an explanation of conceptual metaphor theory. It is important to note Lanier’s definition of metaphor and subsequent interpretation. He states, “A metaphor, then, is the cognitive ‘mapping’ or drawing of correspondences from the source domain to the target domain, such that interpreting a metaphor requires unpacking these mappings” (p. 21). Lanier analyzes the four Lukan passages and their respective metaphor/domains in an easy-to-use pattern throughout chs. 2–5. Each chapter begins with preliminary questions such as “What is Luke quoting?” and “How has the metaphor been interpreted?” and then follows with an examination of passage-specific problems. The second section of each chapter is devoted to establishing the conceptual metaphor. This section examines the source domain(s), source-target mappings, and conceptual metaphors. The third section of the chapter delves into the actual Lukan text. Here, Lanier works through the context of the respective metaphors. Chapter 2 examines Luke 1:68–69 and its horn metaphor, ch. 3 examines Luke 1:78–79 and the metaphor of dawn/divine visitation, ch. 4 examines Luke 13:34 and its mother bird metaphor, and ch. 5 examines Luke 20:17–18 and its metaphor of the stone. In ch. 6, Lanier closes his study with a summary of his findings and suggests that each metaphor evinces a “divine identity Christology.” By this, Lanier is arguing that these metaphors help to define Jesus’s divine identity and suggest a “higher” Christology than is normally assumed among Luke’s commentators.This volume is a helpful read for several reasons. First, Lanier speaks to a timely and ongoing conversation. The debates concerning the Christology of the respective authors of the Gospels are voluminous. Aspects of this debate have been underdeveloped, and Lanier’s analysis is a helpful contribution to an ignored angle of the debate. Second, Lanier focuses his study on a small sample set of passages that have not been met with any sort of interpretive consensus. He wrestles with the current literature and provides an up-to-date and thorough analysis. Third, Lanier is implementing exciting, new hermeneutical strategies (CMT) to familiar texts. One point of contention is the comparison of CMT and intertextuality. Lanier differentiates the two categories of interpretation but settles back into wording that is used by both sets of users. It is not clear at the practical level how the two methods are different. He also critiques the intertextual method for its lack of controls, but it does not seem self-evident how CMT uses controls to define the source domains or pick the primary evidence from the OT/Jewish Greek sources other than linguistic parallels. On the other hand, drawing a wider net for domains/sources makes the investigation of Luke’s sources more thorough and less likely to miss something. Although not necessary to make the point, Lanier includes graphics throughout the book depicting subjects such as the Akkadian king Naram-Sin with a horned crown and a wall mural of the Egyptian goddess Isis, ca. 1300 BC. These are especially helpful for those attempting to wrap their minds around the dense argument. The pictures also help to bring life and vividness to the metaphorical domains he is arguing.Overall, Gregory Lanier’s volume is an important resource for those in Synoptic scholarship. Proponents of a “high Christology” will find a helpful ally in Lanier. His proposals for understanding metaphors is advancing the conversation on understanding how authors use their materials. Specifically, Lanier brings new light and specificity to Luke’s metaphorical representation of Jesus. Students of CMT will also find a helpful model for how to implement this emerging methodology to the biblical text.

Epistemology of Metaculture Metaphorization

The purpose of the paper was to substantiate the essence of metaculture as a way of recognizing yourself as a person in the maze of free will and action; determination of the structure, morphology and functional typology of metacultural metaphors and epistemological conditions for their contemplation. The introduction of this typology into the theory and practice of contemporary cultural pedagogy makes it expedient: 1) to avoid the practice of “imposing” and “adjusting” the process of metaphorizing the cultural artifact to a “ready” model of classical or non-classical rationality; reduction of the cultural metaphor to the semiotic interpretation of the sign; 2) to organize the “co-creation” of historical forms of the “I” and “you” dialogue in the metaphorical modeling of cultural artifacts on the basis of social and cultural pluralism and relativism. The systematic mentality methodology of the presented research implemented phenomenological-hermeneutic and semiotic approaches, methods of coherent modeling and expert evaluation of conceptual integration theory, connective theory of metaphorical interpretation, concept of nonlinear epistemology, principles of antinomy, verification, complexity, disjunctive synthesis. The scientific novelty of the material is to discover the peculiarities of the metacultural metaphor and determine epistemological strategies for contemplating its essential meaning. Conclusions. Epistemic metaculture implies a reflective use of the cultural experience of the Other One for creative self-development. The performance of its semiotic subject is effectively realized in the process of metaphorical cognitive science. The metamodern epistemological strategy overcomes the elenctic cognitive irony by applying a methodology of nonlinear thinking.

ГЕРМЕНЕВТИКА МЕТАФОРИ

The possibilities of philosophical hermeneutics in connection with the problems of interpretation and understanding of metaphors are examined. The hermeneutic method and its use in the analysis of specific semantic formations is associated with the concept of metaphor, which can be considered as the most important component of hermeneutic discourse. The metaphor and its capabilities are an essential characteristic of language and speech activity, reflecting the creative nature of our consciousness, the very structure of rationality. Various theoretical approaches to understanding metaphors are analyzed.Criticism of metaphors continues to the present. It seems to many researchers that metaphors, trails, idioms are illegitimate children of knowledge, rationality, and language. This is quite typical for representatives of modern empiricism, nominalism, reductionism, skepticism, etc., which are driven, in general, by good motivation. This is an attempt to achieve at least conditional objectivity, accuracy and reliability of the results in our humanitarian knowledge, for which, of course, we should bring the language of philosophy closer to the language of nature sciences.True, it has long been noted that this notorious and exacted “accuracy” is not at all true or true, the correct reflection of the objects studied, such as culture, morality, truth or poetry. Oddly enough, getting rid of metaphors, we can not say anything more true, and just something non-trivial about poetry, such that it really clarifies its essence or simply explains to us why people write and read poetry.Another approach that we can already find with Aristotle, and implicitly among the pre-Socratics, not to mention Plato, is to recognize the metaphor as the most important role in our language and knowledge. The fact that no language can do without metaphors is quite obvious. But is metaphor so important for our knowledge? We strive to present the point of view according to which the metaphor is an instrument of cognitive activity and, as a consequence, of the knowledge of the world by man, no less than logic or mathematics, not to mention the empirical methods of the natural sciences.Even a preliminary examination of the role of metaphor in hermeneutic discourse shows that it is a metaphor, more generally, metaphorical, and in another aspect, idiomaticity, that creates the very possibility for hermeneutics to exist. It is metaphors with their ambiguity that provoke interpretation and cognition using the hermeneutic method. Even a single metaphor creates a certain semantic tension, which can only be resolved through the effort of interpretation. A text that is fundamentally built or consists mainly of metaphors creates a special semantic space in which the hermeneutic consideration realizes itself. In a sense, these are approximately coincident regions, wherever we meet with a metaphor, hermeneutics also becomes possible. The reverse is also partly true, the task of hermeneutic discourse is not only the interpretation of explicit metaphors, but also the discretion of metaphorical or idiomatic where it is not at first glance visible. It cannot be argued that the search for metaphors is the only thing of hermeneutics, however, it is also true that without considering the tropes, modern hermeneutics would have a completely different look and purpose.

Simile and Metaphor Interpretation in Children

Metaphors and similes have been treated as the same comparable types of figurative speech since Aristotle. In early theories, metaphors are interpreted as corresponding similes by paraphrasing. Based on this theoretical framework, some experimental studies interpret simile understanding as evidence for metaphor understanding. However, according to Relevance Theory, similes are interpreted as comparisons, whereas metaphors are interpreted as categorization statements. Therefore, only metaphor reveals metaphor interpretation. In other words, studies cannot use simile interpretation as evidence for metaphor interpretation ability in children. Simile should be easier to understand for children since they exclude an “ad hoc concept” construction as in metaphor understanding. This study seeks evidence showing children’s better performance in simile interpretation than that in metaphor interpretation, thus supporting Relevance Theory. For the Relevance Theory account, whether the experiments use similes or metaphors as testing materials is of considerable significance, whereas for comparison account, it is not. By review and re-interpretation of the empirical studies, we find that few early studies expose “real metaphor” understanding in children. Most experimental results indicate that simile interpretation is easier than metaphor interpretation for children. We consider comparison theory and the Relevance Theory as complementary strategies in metaphor interpretation.

Dieva īpašību atainojums latviešu tautasdziesmās teopoētikas kontekstā

An innovative view to theological texts as a literary genre has been established in research of the modern religions and designated as theopoetics, because, irrespective of whether a theological text is written in the poetic genre, in the form of a story or the style of a more dense, theoretical prose, it is based on the poesis: innovative, intuitive and an imaginary composition of the authors where the central figure is God. Therefore, approximately ten thousand recorded and published folk songs, as well as other Latvian folklore texts about God, are equal to theopoetics as a genre of creative writing with its specific expression tools. Folk songs are a product of purposeful human spiritual/intellectual activity and imagination, a typical cultural phenomenon of the relevant society, which helps to study the public’s views about the perception of God. To approach adequately to analysis and interpretation of such texts, in the late 20th century, a new method of research on religious texts – theopoetics – was established. Theopoetics is a method of analysing religious texts that encourages us to look at the ancient metaphors of God from another angle. It explores the language possibilities of figuratively creating God’s patterns, unlike the previous “scientific” God’s theories as the systematic attempt of theology to find God through the living (“incarnated”) God. Theopoetics theorists accept reality as a source of divine revelation as well as personal experience and metaphor-influenced divine understanding in various religions. This method allows to establish the essence and possible interpretations of the basic metaphors used in every individual religion: 1) critically weigh up the previous explanations of God; 2) study the interaction of applied metaphors, models and concepts within religion; 3) offers the potential of transformative, revolutionary models, using the language and metaphor layer that is widely understandable and used by people in everyday life. Research of metaphors does not impose objective or general criteria for assessing understanding of God; therefore, the aim of theopoetical discourse is not to prevent competing interpretations but to multiply the number of perceptions of God, to extend the emotional feeling, and to reveal new opinions. Folk songs figuratively represent God in metaphors and comparisons, but the theopoetics method has not been applied in the previous studies of God either because it is a relatively new methodological system, or because God’s perception in the folk songs has not been the focus of researchers of contemporary religions.

Lingua-Ethological Causes of Communicative Failures: Pragmatic Aspect

The paper reveals and describes communicative failures caused by differences in structures of communicants’ lingua-ethological encyclopedic knowledge based on the cognitive theory of dynamic construal of meaning. А communicative failure is viewed as a speech-behavioural act, where there is no semiosis (the addresser’s verbal and/or non-verbal utterance does not evoke any conventional conceptual content in the addressee’s mind) or there is ambivalent semiosis (the addresser and addressee privilege different aspects of the conceptual content structured by different frames (scripts)/domains, which results in the divergence between the addressee’s inferences and addresser’s presuppositions. It is alleged that communicative failures can be caused by differences in structures of communicants’ lingua-ethological knowledge of general principles regulating communicative behaviour. The addresser’s verbal and/or non-verbal utterance triggers different aspects of the conventional conceptual content in the minds of the communicants structured by different frames (scripts)/domains, which leads to the divergence between the addressee’s inferences and addresser’s presuppositions. Differences in structures of communicants’ lingua-ethological encyclopedic knowledge result from the addressee’s failure to select the most relevant way of interpreting the addresser’s utterance due to the violation of interpersonal rhetoric principles, in particular, Relevance Theory principles caused by a disregard of lingual and extra-lingual context of a communicative act. This results in a false interpretation of homonymous verbal utterances, utterance implicatures enabling both literal and metaphorical interpretation or implicatures connected with recognizing irony/sarcasm as well as the addresser’s communicative intentions and utterance addressing.