Interpersonal Style Research Articles

Personality and Interpersonal Influence: Low Adjustment and Low Competitiveness is Associated With Low Assertiveness.

This study examined the relationship between personality and interpersonal assertiveness styles, an important and neglected topic. In all, 396 working adults completed a six-factor personality test measuring work-related traits (HPTI) and a two-dimensional assessment of interpersonal styles (III) assessing four styles: Assertiveness, Passiveness, Hostile aggression, and Manipulative aggression. We were particularly interested in the correlates of aggressive and passive behaviour, as opposed to assertive behaviour. The results suggested that those with low Conscientiousness and Adjustment (i.e. Neuroticism) but high Competitiveness (low Agreeableness) were more interpersonally aggressive, while passivity was negatively associated with all traits, particularly Adjustment, but not with Conscientiousness. Regressions indicated very different traits associated with each of the four interpersonal styles. Assertiveness was associated with sex and age, but only one trait, Risk Approach (or Courage). Limitations of these findings and implications of assessing and teaching assertiveness are discussed and considered.

Commercial forensic interviewing in the South African context: the Ponaletso CFI framework

Purpose The continued prevalence of financial crime and the lack of effective commercial forensic interviewing strategies prompted the development, presented here, of a conceptual framework to explain the relational dynamics conducive to interactions during a commercial forensic interview (CFI). The purpose of this study is to present such a framework which may facilitate the process of obtaining admissible evidence in different forums. Design/methodology/approach A grounded theory approach was adopted to develop a conceptual framework, drawing on the findings of a scoping review, direct observations of interactions involving commercial forensic practitioners (FPs) and interviewees, and data obtained from semi-structured interviews, making use of critical realism as a meta-theoretical framework. Findings Data obtained from the review informed the integrated approach of the conceptual framework, thus combining the structure of the PEACE model and creating an optimal interpersonal context informed by the person-centred approach (PCA). Observational data were used to identify the relational qualities associated with the interpersonal styles (clusters of relational qualities) of FPs in the CFI context, thereby contributing to complex relational dynamics. Interview data were used both to describe effective and ineffective interpersonal styles and how they played out in the CFI with interviewees, yielding information that unfortunately proved not to be admissible in a legal context. The findings of the different phases indicated the need for an integrated conceptual approach, the Ponaletso CFI framework, which draws on the structure of the PEACE model and the PCA, as expressed in the relational qualities of interactional pattern analysis (IPA). The framework consists of the interview stage (before, during and after), the structure (phases) of the PEACE model, the type of questions (open- or closed-ended) according to the PCA, FPs’ interpersonal styles (clusters of relational qualities as explained by IPA) and the observable relational dynamics between FPs and interviewees. When FPs use the Ponaletso CFI framework, there is a greater likelihood of extracting admissible evidence because the interview is guided by a clear structure with a step-by-step questioning approach by FPs, while taking into consideration the relational dynamics to which they contribute. Originality/value The proposed conceptual framework considers relational dynamics and how FPs can navigate towards optimal relational dynamics in CFI contexts. FPs can apply the structure, ask appropriate questions at the relevant phases and observe the relational dynamics playing out in the interpersonal context of the CFI. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is the first attempt at creating an integrated interviewing framework for conducting CFIs aligned with the legal context in South Africa. Using the Ponaletso CFI framework may aid FPs in obtaining admissible evidence and facilitate an optimal interpersonal context during commercial forensic investigations while respecting interviewees’ constitutional rights.

Punishment and Reward Sensitivity in Risk-Taking as Potential Mechanisms Explaining the Relationships Between Childhood Callous-Unemotional Traits and Adolescent Substance Use in a Longitudinal Cohort Study Sample.

Childhood callous-unemotional (CU) traits are associated with a neurocognitive response style of high reward and low punishment sensitivity, which may make these children particularly vulnerable to substance misuse. However, the mechanisms explaining the link between CU traits and substance use are poorly understood. This study investigated the mediating influences of reward and punishment sensitivity on the association between childhood CU traits and adolescent substance use. Using data from the UK Millennium Cohort Study, mediation analyses were conducted to investigate the potential indirect effects of age 14 reward and punishment sensitivity in risk-taking on the relationships between age 11 CU traits and alcohol, cannabis, and other illicit drug use at age 17. No direct effects of CU traits on substance use were found when accounting for gender, baseline alcohol use, poverty, emotional symptoms, conduct problems, hyperactivity, and verbal ability at age 11. Indirect effects of increased reward sensitivity on the relationship between CU traits and increased use were seen for alcohol, cannabis, and other drugs. There was a significant indirect effect of reduced punishment sensitivity on the relationship between CU traits and increased alcohol use, but not cannabis or other substance use. Findings suggest that reward and punishment sensitivity may have independent effects on decision-making processes contributing to adolescent substance use. Prevention and early intervention for substance use should consider modifying intervention strategies to fit the needs of adolescents with a callous interpersonal style and a neurocognitive profile characterized by a high drive for rewards and low risk aversion.

Fibromyalgia, perfectionism, and interpersonal style. Further evidence for a person-centered approach

Objectives. We carried out a controlled, cross-sectional investigation in patients with Fibromyalgia (FM) to determine the presence of perfectionism and three interpersonal styles, namely ‘subjugation’, ‘approval-seeking’, and ‘self-sacrifice’. Method. Several validated self-report questionnaires were filled-in by 100 female FM patients and 36 women with rheumatoid arthritis as a control group. Results. We found significantly higher scores in the FM group for all perfectionism subscales, except for the subscale ‘organization’. Moreover, FM patients scored higher for the three interpersonal styles. Conclusions. Our results support our clinical observations suggesting that maladaptive perfectionism as well as excessive other-directed interpersonal styles may be highly prevalent in patients with FM. These results add to growing evidence that a personalized, biopsychosocially oriented approach taking these factors into account may be a useful addition to standard therapy. However, the effectiveness of additional psychotherapy for FM should be further investigated.

Elite tennis player's perceptions of coaching effectiveness

The purpose of this study was to explore the experiences of six elite Chinese tennis players and their perspectives of coaching effectiveness within their sport. We collected data using two approaches: semi-structured interviews and player documents (e.g., detailed biographies, competition experience, and performance statistics). Data were analyzed using a reflexive thematic analysis to identify the coaches’ knowledge and behaviors that elite Chinese players considered to be effective and ineffective within the training and competitive landscape. We constructed two overarching themes to represent elite tennis player's perceptions regarding coaching effectiveness: (1) perceived coaching roles (i.e., the coach as a planner, teacher, and strategist), and (2) coaching as a social phenomenon (i.e., interpersonal styles and networks, effective and ineffective behaviors). Theoretically, this study aligns with the 3 + 1Cs model of the coach–athlete relationship and enriches the literature on coaching effectiveness in elite tennis. Practically, this study underscores the value of coaching knowledge and behaviors in shaping player's competitive performance and sociopsychological abilities and identifies recommendations for coaches and players to develop harmonious and meaningful relationships within the elite tennis context.

The Effect of Coaches' Interpersonal Style Profiles on Young Athletes' Motivation and Sport Commitment

AbstractThe objective of this study was to identify both the latent profiles of coaching styles based on athletes' perceptions and their subsequent associations with athletes' motivation and sport commitment. The sample comprised young athletes from various sports types. Participants provided self‐reports of their perceptions of their coaches' behaviors, and their sport commitment and sport motivation. Cluster analyses revealed three coaching style profiles: Cluster 1 were coaches with a “low coaching style,” including those who lacked an autonomy‐supportive and those with a low controlling coaching style. Cluster 2 was labeled “Supportive coaching style” and represented coaches who were more apt to be autonomy‐supportive and less controlling. Cluster 3 was a “Controlling coaching style” and included coaches who demonstrated a low autonomy‐supportive and a high controlling style. Compared with athletes in Cluster 3, athletes in Clusters 1 and 2 reported higher levels of adaptive motivation and commitment variables. Thus, youth athletes perceived three clusters of coaching styles (Low coaching style, Supportive coaching style, and Controlling coaching style), and these profiles were associated with varying levels of athletes' motivation and commitment to sport.

Managing Rapport on TripAdvisor: Correlation of Negative Reviews and Response Voices on Online Business Platforms

This study explores the impact of negative reviews and responses on rapport management, synthesizing current research on this topic. Employing formulated research questions and statistical methods like chi-square tests, this study systematically analyzed collected data both quantitatively and qualitatively. Results indicate significant differences in response voices—accommodative, formalistic, and defensive—among various interpersonal relationship management styles when addressing negative reviews. These findings emphasize the complexity of managing interpersonal relationships amidst criticism, offering theoretical insights and practical guidance for improving customer rapport management in industries like hospitality. By examining how different management voices respond to negative reviews, this study contributes a fresh perspective to enhancing customer relationship practices in service sectors.

Autonomy support in higher education: a key strategy for the well-being of university students

Introduction Amid changing social dynamics, the world of higher education faces, among other challenges, the growing impact on the mental health of students. In this scenario, the Self-Determination Theory (SDT) highlights the important role of autonomy support as it generates positive effects on students' motivation and well-being. Methods The present study tests the predictive capacity of the teacher’s interpersonal style of autonomy support in a higher education institution, in relation to the satisfaction of basic psychological needs, autonomous motivation and depressive symptoms. A sample composed of 356 Spanish university students of which 237 were male (66.57%) from different grades and courses, aged between 17 and 57 years (M = 20.83; SD = 3.44), from middle socioeconomic strata, was used, and selected through purposive sampling. Results After the analysis of structural equations, the results showed that the teacher’s interpersonal style of autonomy support positively predicted the satisfaction of basic psychological needs and this the autonomous motivation; but negatively depressive symptoms. Conclusions The model describes the possible importance of promoting the teacher’s interpersonal style of autonomy support in higher education as a protective factor for well-being and mental health. These findings highlight the importance of motivational strategies that higher education teachers must implement to promote student motivation and well-being.

How do victims of bullying develop depression? Testing interpersonal style to explain the victimization-depression link.

This study tested to what extent the relation between bullying victimization and future symptoms of depression could be explained by victims being more hostile and less assertive than non-involved individuals. Data came from waves 2-4 of the Dutch TRacking Adolescents' Individual Lives Survey (TRAILS). Participants' bullying experiences were assessed at age 13, interpersonal style at age 16, and depression symptoms at age 19. Mediation analyses were performed primarily on 274 self-reported victims and 1498 non-involved peers. Self-reported victims had an increased risk for depression symptoms. About a third of that risk could be explained by victims' hostile style, which was also higher than those of non-involved peers. Although victims also reported lower levels of assertiveness than non-involved peers, this interpersonal style did not mediate the link between bullying victimization and depression. Our findings suggest that high hostility, but not low assertiveness, partly explains the increased depression risk of self-reported victims. Therefore, interventions could focus on addressing hostility, to help reduce the likelihood that adolescents who have experienced bullying victimization will have more interpersonal conflicts and mental health problems in the future. Supplementary materials also include analyses for bullies and bully-victims, and for peer-reported measures.

Antecedents of teachers’ motivational behaviours in physical education: a scoping review utilising achievement goal and self-determination theory perspectives

ABSTRACT Physical Education (PE) teachers’ adoption of motivational teaching behaviours is a critical determinant of students’ quality of experience in lessons. Drawing from achievement goal theory (AGT) and self-determination theory (SDT), extensive evidence has substantiated the consequences of teachers emphasising a specific type of motivational climate (AGT) or interpersonal style (SDT). However, less attention has been paid to critically appraising the antecedents of teachers’ behaviours underpinning a particular climate or style. Therefore, the aim of the present scoping review was to evaluate the extant literature addressing the determinants of teachers’ motivational behaviours in PE from AGT and SDT perspectives. Nine databases were searched to identify 94 studies that met the inclusion criteria. Findings revealed that more studies had sought to understand the reasons for teaching behaviours from a SDT approach than from the lens of AGT. Moreover, multiple personal and contextual factors were shown to be associated with, or to impact upon, teachers’ behaviours. Future research should adopt a more theoretically integrative approach to advancing our understanding of teachers’ motivational behaviours, as well as examine additional antecedents that might be suitable for intervention with pre- and in-service PE teachers.

Predicting Adherence to Treatment in the Elderly With Type 2 Diabetes Based on Interpersonal Conflicts and Self-compassion

Background and Aims Treatment adherence is a key factor in improving patient safety and the quality of care according to the needs of older people. Non-adherence prevents older adults from accessing the best treatment, and this issue may be especially problematic in chronic medical conditions. Therefore, the present study aims to determine the relationship between interpersonal conflicts and self-compassion with treatment adherence in the elderly with type 2 diabetes. Methods The method of this research was descriptive and correlational. The study’s statistical population included all older people with type 2 diabetes referred to the endocrinology clinic of the fifth district of Tehran City, Iran, during the first 6 months of 2023. Based on the formula of Tabachnick and Fidell (2007), 138 people were randomly selected as a sample. In this research, Rahim’s standard interpersonal conflict resolution style questionnaire, self-compassion scale, and treatment adherence questionnaire were used. Finally, the data was entered into SPSS software, version 26 to check the correlation between the variables, and the Pearson correlation coefficient and multiple regression were used simultaneously to analyze the data. Results This research showed that interpersonal conflicts predict 29.9% and self-compassion 26.5% of changes in treatment adherence. Among these, the components of interpersonal conflict styles included integrity (r=0.24), avoidant (r=-0.33), and required (r=-0.17), and the components of self-compassion, including self-kindness (r=0.24), avoiding self-judgment (r=0.21) and absence of over-identification (r=0.17) can predict treatment compliance in older people with type 2 diabetes Conclusion This research has shown that interpersonal conflicts and self-compassion have a positive and significant relationship with treatment adherence in older people with type 2 diabetes and can predict treatment compliance in these older people.

The effect of warm-up with transcranial direct current stimulation on performance factors in collegiate golfers.

This study aimed to determine the effects of warm-up using transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) on performance factors in collegiate golfers and to provide a scientific basis for the effectiveness and methodology of tDCS. We sought to compare the effects of tDCS as an additional treatment during warm-up. tDCS is generally activated when a small electric current is applied to the motor cortex of the cerebral cortex, which has been reported to be helpful in improving motor function. Therefore, we sought to prove the effectiveness of combined warm-up exercise and tDCS. Twenty-two collegiate male golfers were divided into tDC- (tDCS; n=11) and sham-treated (sham; n=11) groups. To examine performance factors, the following were assessed following tDCS application: carry, clubhead speed (CHS), ball speed (BS) for driver performance, countermovement jump (CMJ) for lower extremity muscle power, global rating of change (GRC) for the subjective change in condition of the participants, and test of attentional interpersonal style (TAIS) for concentration. This study showed that warm-up with tDCS had positive effects on carry (p=.004), CHS (p=.019), BS (p=.017) of driver performance, CMJ (p=.002), and GRC (p=.005), however, no significant effect on TAIS was found, which suggest that the effects of the warm-up with tDCS were significant for driver performances, CMJ, and GRC. Future studies should independently validate the effectiveness of tDCS and apply it to different situations and timeframes, such as training and competitions, to provide new alternative strategies or performance improvement.

Attachment and Political Personality are Heritable and Distinct Systems, and Both Share Genetics with Interpersonal Trust and Altruism

The attachment and caregiving domains maintain proximity and care-giving behavior between parents and offspring, in a way that has been argued to shape people’s mental models of how relationships work, resulting in secure, anxious or avoidant interpersonal styles in adulthood. Several theorists have suggested that the attachment system is closely connected to orientations and behaviors in social and political domains, which should be grounded in the same set of familial experiences as are the different attachment styles. We use a sample of Norwegian twins (N = 1987) to assess the genetic and environmental relationship between attachment, trust, altruism, right-wing authoritarianism (RWA), and social dominance orientation (SDO). Results indicate no shared environmental overlap between attachment and ideology, nor even between the attachment styles or between the ideological traits, challenging conventional wisdom in developmental, social, and political psychology. Rather, evidence supports two functionally distinct systems, one for navigating intimate relationships (attachment) and one for navigating social hierarchies (RWA/SDO), with genetic overlap between traits within each system, and two distinct genetic linkages to trust and altruism. This is counter-posed to theoretical perspectives that link attachment, ideology, and interpersonal orientations through early relational experiences.

In the eye of the beholder: Social traits predict motor simulation during naturalistic action perception

Previous research has robustly demonstrated that eye contact between actor and observer promotes the simulation of perceived actions into the observer's own motor system, which in turn facilitates social perception and communication. The socially relevant connotation embedded in eye contact may however be different for individuals with differing social traits. Here, we examined how “normal” (i.e. non-clinical) variability in self-reported social responsiveness/autistic traits, social anxiety and interpersonal relationship style (secure, avoidant or anxious attachment) influences neural motor simulation during action observation in different gaze conditions. To do so, we analyzed an existing dataset involving 124 adult participants (age range: 18–35 years) who underwent transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) while observing an actor performing simple hand actions and simultaneously engaging in eye contact or gazing away from the observer. Motor evoked potential (MEP) amplitudes were adopted as an index of motor resonance. Regression-based analyses highlighted the role of social responsiveness and secure attachment in shaping motor resonance, indicating that socially responsive motor resonance during dyadic gaze (i.e., MEPdirect > MEPaverted) was only observed in participants displaying high levels of these traits. Furthermore, a clustering analysis identified two to three distinct subgroups of participants with unique social trait profiles, showing a clear differentiation in motor resonant patterns upon different gaze cues that is in accordance with a recent neurobiological framework of attachment. Together, results demonstrate that motor resonance within a given social interaction may serve as a sensitive tracker of socio-interactive engagement, which allows to capture subclinical inter-individual variation in relevant social traits.

Machiavellian behavior and social-emotional functioning in middle childhood and early adolescence.

Machiavellianism is an antisocial interpersonal style involving the use of manipulative, deceptive, and coercive behaviors in the pursuit of self-interest. Although widely studied as a "dark" personality trait in adults, relatively little is known about the developmental correlates of Machiavellian tendencies earlier in life. The present study addressed this knowledge gap by examining associations between Machiavellian behavior and three theoretically relevant social-emotional domains-prosocial emotions, emotion recognition skills, and self-control-in a community sample of 7- and 11-year-old Canadian children (N = 300, 50% female). Of particular interest was the extent to which individual differences in social-emotional capacities were uniquely associated with Machiavellian behavior after controlling for aggression, a relatively well-studied antisocial behavior in childhood. Parents reported on children's Machiavellian behavior and aggression. Social-emotional correlates were assessed via parent and child reports, behavioral tasks, and physiological assessments. Machiavellian behavior and aggression were similarly associated with lower parent-reported prosocial emotions and self-control. Machiavellian (but not aggressive) behavior was associated with lower child-reported guilt (a prosocial emotion), higher resting skin conductance levels (reflecting a general tendency for higher arousal), and better anger recognition. Semipartial correlational analyses indicated that these patterns of association with Machiavellian behaviors held independent of aggression. These findings indicate that, by middle childhood, Machiavellian behavior constitutes a distinct form of antisocial conduct that is associated with a unique social-emotional risk profile. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Rahim Organizational Conflict Inventory: Instrumentation and Application for Extension Professionals

Conflict is inevitable in workplaces among people of all ages. Extension professionals have a unique position where in a single workday they may be engage with youth and volunteers, as well as colleagues and supervisors. Extension professionals may experience conflict with their stakeholders, volunteers, and supervisors; therefore, they must be able to understand conflict and conflict styles to navigate tense situations. The Rahim Organizational Conflict Inventory (ROCI) is an instrument that can be used to understand one’s interpersonal conflict management style. By having a strong understanding of conflict components and for utilizing the ROCI tool, Extension professionals can manage conflict well and reduce the likelihood of dysfunctional conflict destroying relationships, teams, and organizations.

Zelfopoffering, onderwerping en pleasing bij vrouwen met CVS in vergelijking met vrouwen met reumatoïde artritis: een observationele studie

Self-sacrifice, subjugation and approval-seeking in women with CFS in comparison to women with rheumatoid arthritis: an observational study CFS is a disorder with a multifactorial pathogenesis in which symptoms arise when precipitating factors combine with predisposing factors. An increasing body of research points to a dysfunction of the stress axis and finds evidence for a high prevalence of early childhood trauma, one of the most important vulnerability factors. Several pathways are conceivable through which early trauma may contribute to the vulnerability to or maintenance of the stress response and the symptoms. In this study, the authors used self-report questionnaires to identify maladaptive patterns that often stand out in clinical practice and may play both a predisposing and a maintaining role. These interpersonal patterns have often been adaptive in an early childhood context, but become harmful when they generalize and remain active in adult life. The authors investigated a group of 49 female CFS patients using 3 subscales of the Young Schema Questionnaire measuring the interpersonal styles of self-sacrifice, approval-seeking and subjugation. They included 45 women with a diagnosis of rheumatoid arthritis as a control group. The authors found significantly higher scores in the CFS group for the 3 variables, with a large effect size for each. The present findings have implications for the further research and treatment. These interpersonal patterns are usually very rigid and serve to protect self-esteem and sense of security. The standard treatment of graded exercise and a limited number of sessions of psychoeducation and cognitive behavioral therapy is often insufficient to allow recovery and prevent relapse. Further research is required to substantiate which is the most optimal treatment strategy to mitigate these patterns.

Proposition of a transdiagnostic processual approach of emotion dysregulation based on core triggers and interpersonal styles.

Emotion dysregulation (ED) has primarily been described in patients suffering from borderline personality disorder (BPD) and is an integral part of this diagnosis, but it is also a transdiagnostic construct that can be found in several other psychiatric disorders. The strong relationships between ED and BPD may lead clinicians to underestimate ED associated to other clinical contexts. This can lead to difficulties in diagnostic and treatment orientation, especially in the context of comorbidities. In this article, after reviewing the literature on the development and functioning of emotion dysregulation, and on the evidence for emotion dysregulation in eight disorders (borderline personality disorder, pathological narcissism with/without narcissistic personality disorder, obsessive-compulsive personality disorder, antisocial personality disorder, bipolar disorder, autism spectrum disorder, complex post-traumatic stress disorder, and adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder), we present a transdiagnostic processual model of emotion dysregulation based on core triggers and interpersonal styles to try to address this issue and to provide a simple but technical tool to help clinicians in their diagnostic assessment and treatment orientation. By focusing more on typical patterns and interpersonal dynamics than only on categories, we believe that this model may contribute to the actual need for improvement of our current psychiatric classifications, alongside other well-studied and under-used dimensional models of psychopathology (e.g., HiTOP, AMPD), and may be useful to build more specific treatment frameworks for patients suffering from ED.

How to motivate students to learn – four motivational styles and how to support each of them

In the dynamically changing educational reality, with the ongoing evolution of teaching methods and the growing role of technology, the role of teachers is no longer limited to merely providing information. Currently, the key element influencing students’ success is their motivation to learn. Another aspect is the common practice of working in a diverse group and the resulting consequences of teaching interactions. They assume the implementation of the principles of Universal Design for Learning (UDL), which recognise the intellectual and cognitive differences of all students, as well as their diverse interests and learning styles, including various ways of motivating students to work. The article raises the issue of motivation while referring to the key principles of UDL. It describes four motivational styles that support differentiated learning, namely: the MASTERY style, emphasising the development of student memory; SELF-EXPRESSIVE style, stimulating students’ imagination and creativity; UNDERSTANDING style, designed to expand students’ ability to reason and explain; and the INTERPERSONAL style, emphasising the importance of relationships in motivating students. The article also provides practical methodological tips for describing various motivational styles. The proposed practical and methodological solutions have been adapted to different age groups of students and refer to various subjects. Thanks to this, recipients have the opportunity to individually adapt them to the specificity of their work.

Factors Affecting Employee’s Perception on Job Satisfaction: Case of United States International University (USIU)

Purpose: This study sought to establish the factors that affect employee’s perception on job satisfaction in USIU. Specifically, the study assessed the effect of employee’s perception of personal factors, social factors, and organizational factors on job satisfaction.
 Methodology: The research design was descriptive in nature, across-sectional survey based on selection of elements regarding the population of interest and presented in frequency and percentage distributions. The population in this study comprised 365 full time employees (both academic and administrative). A sample of 79 full time employees was targeted to represent the population of interest. The sampling technique used consisted of a non-probability sampling technique that was purposive sampling based on the population of interest. Questionnaires were tested through a pilot testing process and thereafter were distributed to 79 full time employees. The data was coded and entered in Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS), and analyzed via descriptive statistics then presented in tables for clarity and ease of understanding.
 Results: With respect to personal factors and job satisfaction, this study concluded that employees with strategic management styles were more characterized by conscientiousness and openness to experience, while those with strong interpersonal management styles were most characterized by extraversion, agreeableness, and high emotional stability. Thus, all Big Five traits should be given attention in the study and application of organizational behavior. In addition, social factors and job satisfaction, the study concluded that job satisfaction is affected by the demographic similarity between supervisors and subordinates by the way in which supervisors assign tasks, the extent to which subordinates and supervisors like and respect each other, and the role of fairness in the workplace. And final, in regard to the organizational factors and its effect on job satisfaction, the research study concluded that organizational reward system must be as objective and as fair as possible and be administered contingently on the employee’s exhibiting critical performance behaviors. Thus, employees should be rewarded in accordance to their contribution in the achievement of organization goal and observation.
 Unique contribution to theory, practice and policy: The study made several recommendations among them that employer (USIU) ought to give attention to all Big Five traits in the study and application of organizational behavior. It also recommended that USIU human resource department should propose organizational restructuring that influences the natures of interactions at work which affect coworker relationships and which in turn affect job satisfaction. It further recommended that USIU should go through a trial-and-error approach before they settle into unique reward systems that works best for their full-time employees.