Interpersonal Judgments Research Articles

Feeling bad but looking good: sick role features that lead to favorable interpersonal judgements

Despite the presumed stigma of medical illnesses and injuries, persons with factitious disorder (FD) actively work to occupy the role of medical patient. They do so for reasons that are distinctly psychological, not for any obvious instrumental benefits. There is little empirical evidence that addresses the psychological benefits that accrue from the sick role. The self-enhancement model of factitious illness behavior suggests that the psychological benefits of the sick role might include protection or enhancement of the patient's self-esteem or self-image. Specifically, the model suggests that the sick role can be self-enhancing by (a) serving as a vehicle for the accumulation and display of prized medical knowledge, (b) providing the patient with a sense of uniqueness, and (c) providing vicarious self-esteem by bringing the patient in contact with prestigious physicians. We tested the self-presentational value of these sick role features by asking participants to provide interpersonal judgments of a fictitious medical patient. Participants made significantly more favorable judgments of the patient when the patient was described as medically knowledgeable, and when the patient had a unique, as opposed to a common, medical problem. No evidence was found to support the hypothesis that patients are seen more positively through their association with prestigious physicians. These results provide preliminary support for an important assumption of the self-enhancement model, namely that the sickrole, or at least certain enactments of the sick-role, can have positive self-presentational outcomes.

Interpersonal behavior, perception, and affect in status-discrepant dyads: Social interaction of gay and heterosexual men.

Social stigma theory guided this study of social interaction in status-discrepant dyads. Interpersonal trait judgments were characterized by out-group covariation bias at the individual and dyadic levels. Men used shared stereotypes and idiosyncratic generalizations regarding characteristics of out-group members when judging their traits, and this was most pronounced in heterosexual men’s judgments of gays. Heterosexual men were accurately aware of how gay men judged their traits, whereas gay men made inaccurate predictions. Verbal and nonverbal behaviors of heterosexual men were consistent with their feelings about the social interaction, whereas public displays and private experience were discrepant among gay men. Methodological and statistical implications for research on social interaction in status-discrepant dyads and estimation of out-group covariation bias are considered.

The effects of face attractiveness onpre-selective recruitment

The aim of this study was to determine how facial attractiveness of applicants influences pre-selective evaluation in two different occupational fields (one relational and one non-relational). A total of 224 participants (working individuals and students) were asked to judge a fictitious applicant based on a resumé (applicant’s qualifications: highly vs. less qualified) and a photograph (attractive vs. unattractive). Overall, the results showed that facial-attractiveness effects on interpersonal judgments are not absolute, and that their occurrence partly depends on the situation in which the judgments are made. Regardless of occupational field, when the applicants were highly qualified (whether attractive or unattractive) they were systematically judged positively, whereas in the case of less qualified applicants, facial attractiveness differentially affected judgments in the two occupational fields: less-qualified but attractive applicants were only judged more favorably than less-qualified and unattractive ones when the job involved relational skills.

Affective Influences on Judgments and Behavior in Organizations: An Information Processing Perspective

This article reviews and integrates recent research in experimental social psychology and organizational behavior demonstrating the pervasive influence that affective states or moods have on judgments, decision making, and behavior in organizations. An information processing theory, the Affect Infusion Model (AIM) is described that can account for many of the empirical findings and also provides a promising theoretical base for future research in this area. The article reviews a range of experimental and applied studies consistent with the predictions of this model, demonstrating the role of information processing strategies in moderating affective influences on organizational behavior. Specifically, we discuss the influence of affect on such work-related behaviors as worker motivation, creativity and performance, interpersonal judgments and communication, performance appraisal judgments and selection interviews, organizational spontaneity, employee flexibility and helpfulness, absenteeism, and bargaining and negotiation behaviors. The implications of the information processing approach for understanding the influence of affect on organizational behaviors are discussed, and we argue for the greater integration of affect into contemporary theorizing and research in organizational settings.

Nonverbal cues and interpersonal judgments: Participant and observer perceptions of intimacy, dominance, composure, and formality

Nonverbal cues play a central role in person and social perception. The impact of such cues on participants’ and observers’ perceptions of relational messages was examined in an experiment in which participants interacted with a confederate who systematically varied his or her communication style then assessed the implicit relational messages in the confederate's communication. Observers watched the videotaped interactions and made similar ratings. Nonverbal indicators of involvement and pleasantness were found to be systematically related to relational message perceptions of intimacy, dominance, composure, and informality. Participants and observers perceived relational messages in similar ways, although participants tended to give more favorable ratings. Results support a social meaning model of nonverbal interpretations, the multiplicity of nonverbal behaviors responsible for communicating relational messages, and the high congruence between participant and observer perspectives, despite some positivity bias by participants.

対人判断における社会的カテゴリー適用可能性の効果とその個人差

対人判断における社会的カテゴリー適用可能性の効果とその個人差

The Influences of Goal-Related Actions and Goal Information on Children's Effort and Ability Perceptions in Interpersonal Situations

Abstract The influences of qualitatively different goal-related actions and goal valence information on children's perceptions of effort and ability in an interpersonal judgment context were investigated, using Heider's (1958) analysis of action theory as a conceptual framework. Kindergartners, 2nd graders, and 5th graders heard stories that depicted actors engaged in 3 repetitive actions or 3 equifinal actions in order to attain either a positive or negative interpersonal goal. For each story, children judged the actor's effort expenditure and ability level. Results indicate that repetitive actors were perceived to have tried less and to have had less ability than equifinal actors. Kindergartners' mean rating of the ability of repetitive actors was higher than those of 2nd graders and 5th graders. Positive goal actors were perceived to have more ability than negative goal actors.

Women's perceptions of female contraceptive behavior: experimental evidence of the sexual double standard.

A social perception study was conducted to examine the effect of the sexual double standard on impressions of a female target. As part of a “social memory” study, 57 female undergraduates read a fictitious woman's diary describing a sexual encounter where the woman provided a condom, the man provided a condom, or the couple had unprotected intercourse. Participants made behavioral judgments and interpersonal judgments about the couple, and rated the female target on several personality traits. Women rated the target's behavior more negatively, and as more inappropriate, when she provided a condom, than when her partner provided a condom. Participants also assumed that the target's partner would feel less positive about her when she provided a condom than if he provided a condom or if they had unprotected intercourse. These results are discussed with respect to the continued existence of the sexual double standard, and its impact on women's contraceptive behavior.

Perceiving Middle-Aged Adults: Effects of Stereotype-Congruent and Incongruent Information

Normative beliefs about mid-life involve stereotypic expectations about age-appropriate development and behavior. This study examined the effects of violations of the stereotypic clock on interpersonal judgments. Each subject read descriptions of persons who, given their position in life, appeared to be 30, 45, or 60 years old. In the experimental condition but not in the control condition, stereotypic expectations about mid-life were activated by explicitly stating that the person was 45 years old. As predicted, subjects judged stereotype-incongruent persons against the background of stereotypic age-related expectations. Subjects evaluated unusually advanced persons (women in particular) more positively, and unusually delayed persons more negatively than stereotype-congruent persons. Stereotype-incongruent persons were rated as less typical, elicited greater surprise, and afforded more extensive causal explanations than stereotype-congruent persons.

Age and health bias in practicing clinical psychologists.

Although ageism is widely cited as a problem in mental health delivery, it is unknown whether practitioner biases are related to factors such as physical health. A randomly drawn national sample of experienced practicing doctoral-level psychologists (N = 371) responded to detailed vignettes of a client presenting with symptoms of depression, in which age (35 years or 70 years) and health (unremarkable or poor) were manipulated. Respondents completed ratings involving professional and interpersonal judgments about the hypothetical client. Results revealed some evidence for age bias, but much stronger effects indicating health biases regardless of client age. Because depressed older persons often present with concomitant health problems, health bias among clinicians is especially relevant for older patients. Implications for service delivery to older adults, and individuals with health problems, are discussed.

Attributions of aggressive and nonagressive African-American male early adolescents: A study of construct accessibility.

This study proposed that aggressive and nonaggressive children might differ in the readiness with which biased causal beliefs are accessed from memory and used as guides to interpersonal judgment. Aggressive and nonaggressive African-American male early adolescents were randomly assigned to a condition that primed the perception of negative outcomes as intentionally caused or unintentionally caused or to a no-priming control condition. Participants then read a description of hypothetical peer provocation, and they made inferences about the peer's intent, the amount of blame and anger, and the likelihood of aggressive retaliation. In the unintentional and control conditions, aggressives made more extreme judgments than nonaggressives. In the intentional priming condition, the judgments of aggressives and nonaggressives were equally extreme

Nature and consequences of halo error: A critical analysis.

The definition of halo error that dominated researchers' thinking for most of this century implied that (a) halo error was common; (b) it was a rater error, with true and illusory components; (c) it led to inflated correlations among rating dimensions and was due to the influence of a general evaluation on specific judgments; and (d) it had negative consequences and should be avoided or removed. We review research showing that all of the major elements of this conception of halo are either wrong or problematic. Because of unresolved confounds of true and illusory halo and the often unclear consequences of halo errors, we suggest a moratorium on the use of halo indices as dependent measures in applied research. We suggest specific directions for future research on halo that take into account the context in which judgments are formed and ratings are obtained and that more clearly distinguish between actual halo errors and the apparent halo effect. When an individual is rated on multiple performance dimensions or attributes, the rater's overall impression or evaluation is thought to strongly influence ratings of specific attributes (Cooper, 1981 b), a phenomenon that is referred to as halo error (Thorndike, 1920). Discussions of halo error are most frequently encountered in the context of evaluative judgment (e.g., in interviews and performance appraisals), but similar phenomena have been noted in research on illusory correlation (Chapman & Chapman, 1969), implicit personality theory (Lay & Jackson, 1969), and interpersonal judgments (Nisbett & Wilson, 1977).

The Interpersonal Judgment Scale: A Measure of Liking or Respect?

Abstract Female college students in the United States were given the option of working with a similar or dissimilar peer on a set of difficult math problems. The peer was identified as either an English or a math major. Potential partners with relevant expertise (math majors) were rated as liked better than the English majors. However, this finding occurred only on the liking item of the Interpersonal Judgment Scale (IJS). There was no effect of academic major on the working-with item or the traditional composite measure. These results were interpreted in terms of self-presentation and may indicate a limitation of the IJS as a method of measuring attraction.

The Influence of Status on Decisions to Help

Abstract Schemas influence interpersonal judgments in ways that can affect behavior toward members of various social categories. In this study, the “wrong number” technique was used to examine the effect of social status on U.S. subjects' decisions to help. The independent variables were the help requester's occupational status (lawyer, gas station attendant, or unspecified) and the helper's socioeconomic status (high or low median neighborhood income). Overall, 62.1% of the subjects helped by making a phone call. Although frequency of help was not affected by the helper's status, X 2(1, N = 240) = 0.64, p > .05, it was affected by the requester's status. Lawyers and requesters with unspecified occupational status received help significantly more often than gas station attendants, X 2(2, N = 240) = 14.90, p < .05. This finding did not support a “similarity effect” in helping.

Mood-related changes in construing self and others

Abstract Two repertory grids were administered to 31 Canadian undergraduates (20 women and 11 men) in which they rated themselves and 10 personal acquaintances on 11 supplied constructs. For the initial (baseline) grid they followed neutral instructions. For the second grid, they rated the same figures while listening to happy music and attempting to recall pleasant memories. The results from both grids closely approximated a set of theoretical predictions derived from a model of interpersonal judgment by Lefebvre, Lefebvre, and Adams-Webber (1986) within the framework of personal construct theory.

Testing a computational model of interpersonal judgment with personal constructs

Abstract In a repertory grid experiment based on elicited personal constructs we tested several predictive implications of a computational model of interpersonal judgment developed by Lefebvre, Lefebvre, and Adams-Webber (1986). Results are compared with related findings within the framework of personal construct theory.

Interpersonal and intrapersonal evaluations of creative ideas

In addition to divergent ideation, creative cognition requires specific evaluative strategies. Two evaluative skills were compared in this investigation, and the correlations of each with divergent thinking, critical thinking, and a measure of ‘preference for ideation’ were examined. One evaluative skill involved interpersonal judgments, and the other intrapersonal judgments. Correlational analyses indicated that there was a significant canonical correlation between inter- and intrapersonal evaluative scores ( Rc = 0.63). There was also a significant correlation between intrapersonal evaluative accuracy and divergent thinking ( Rc = 0.45), and a significant correlation between interpersonal evaluative accuracy and the preference for ideation ( R = 0.31). Importantly, examinees were significantly more accurate when evaluating the uniqueness rather than the popularity of their own ideas, but significantly more accurate when evaluating the popularity rather than the uniqueness of ideas given by others. The highest percentage of correct identifications was for interpersonal evaluations, where 42% of the popular ideas were correctly identified. The lowest category was intrapersonal evaluations, where only 21% of the popular ideas were correctly identified. Finally, both inter- and intrapersonal evaluative scores had discriminant validity, being unrelated to standardized measures of critical thinking. These results are discussed in the context of current theories of creative thinking.

Effects of Role Assignment and Verbal Interaction on Accuracy and Overconfidence in Interpersonal Judgment1

In an experiment designed to test the effects of role assignment and verbal interaction on accuracy and overconfidence in interpersonal judgment, subjects estimated the questionnaire responses of a randomly assigned partner and assessed their confidence in each estimate. Ninety‐five subjects were assigned to one of four conditions in a 2 (role vs. no‐role) by 2 (verbal interaction vs. no‐interaction) design. Results indicated that accuracy was positively related to the weight subjects gave to their own responses in estimating the other person's responses, and both role assignment and verbal interaction caused subjects to give less weight to their own responses. Because they gave less weight to their own responses, subjects in the role conditions were less accurate than those in the no‐role conditions, and this reduction in accuracy resulted in greater overconfidence and worse calibration. Practical implications of these results are discussed.

Perceptions of Assertiveness by Women Involved in a Conflict Situation

This study extends previous research by examining the social impact of assertiveness upon differentially assertive subjects under more naturalistic assessment conditions. Forty-five low-and 45 high-assertive undergraduate, Caucasian females interacted with a female confederate who displayed unassertive, assertive, or empathic-assertive behaviors in the context of conflict resolution. Subsequent to the interactions, the Interpersonal Evaluation Inventory, the Interpersonal Judgment Scale, and a postexperimental questionnaire assessed the subjects' perceptions of the confederate's behavior and other aspects of the study. The results suggest that in a live conflict situation, assertiveness is regarded less favorably on some dimensions of interpersonal attraction than is unassertiveness. Also, low-assertive subjects experienced more anxiety and personal sacrifice during their interaction with the confederate than did high-assertive subjects. High-and low-assertive individuals did not differ in their compliance with assertive requests, thus calling into question the behavioral validity of the Assertion Inventory. Finally, the implications of these results for research and training are discussed.

Process Versus Content in the Study of Judgmental Accuracy

Process Versus Content in the Study of Judgmental Accuracy